ABLATIVE ABSOLUTES

Introduction.

In the introduction to his translation of Caesar's "De Bello Gallico", Book V, published on this blog on 31st August 2010, Sabidius wrote about Ablative Absolutes as follows:

"Caesar's prose, is as stated above, relatively straightforward to translate. It is full of instances of the ablative absolute construction, which is perhaps the quintessential characteristic of the Latin language. An ablative absolute is a phrase detached from the main clause of a sentence, at the heart of which is a participle, or verbal adjective, agreeing with a noun or pronoun in the ablative case (viz. an ablative of attendant circumstances), when this noun is not the subject or object of the main verb. Because orthodox verbs in Latin lack the form of a past participle in the active voice, ablative absolutes using past participles passive are often necessary to compensate for this lack, with the grammatical sense having to be inverted into the passive voice. In translating into English, it is common to restore the active construction and thus to attach the participle to the subject or object of the main verb, something which is not possible in Latin through the lack of a past participle active. At the same time ablative absolutes are often used, as indeed are participles in general, as an alternative to subordinate clauses. When translating into English, it is common to replace the participle with such a subordinate clause, e.g. a temporal or a concessive clause. The use of participles in general, and ablative absolutes in particular, facilitates that conciseness of expression and economy in the use of words which are the hallmarks of the Latin language."

Sabidius has recently completed a translation of Book III of the "De Bello Gallico", and in order to illustrate Caesar's fondness for this construction and to demonstrate the different ways in which it can both be used in Latin and translated into English, he has listed below 117 instances of the ablative absolute in the twenty-nine chapters of this book. Each instance is accompanied by a literal translation into English and a suggested alternative of the various more colloquial translations of it that might be possible. Before that, however, Sabidius offers some further reflections on the grammatical significance of the ablative absolute which may be of interest to the student of Latin literature.

The Ablative Absolute as a Participial Phrase.

Firstly, attention is given to the ablative absolute construction as an example of the use of participles. While participles are verbal adjectives, and in that sense they qualify nouns, they are most commonly used adverbially, as an alternative to an adverbial subordinate clause, and predicatively, in that they provide an extension to the predicate of the sentence. As stated above the ablative absolute is usually a participial phrase, and the majority of these involve a past participle passive of transitive verbs, i.e. verbs which take an object. When these are translated into English, these phrases are usually rendered in one of three ways: a) into a subordinate adverbial clause, most commonly a temporal clause, but in some cases causal, concessive and conditional clauses as well; b) by the retention of a phrase, usually participial, as in the case of the ablative absolute, but sometimes prepositional, i.e. in circumstances where the need for a verb is not essential; and c) by breaking up the structure of the Latin complex sentence, which is sometimes lengthy,  and employing an additional main verb. In all of these cases, other than the prepositional phrase where no verb is present, it is usual to revert to the use of the active voice in the translation, although when the subject of the action is unclear or there is a desire to maintain the focus of attention on the object of the action the passive sense may be profitably retained. Past participle passives are, of course, only available to transitive verbs, and in the case of intransitive verbs, including verbs that take the dative case, another type of construction, usually a temporal clause with "cum" (when), must be used instead of an ablative absolute. While most participial phrases involving ablative absolutes do use the past participle passive, the use of the present participle active is quite common and can be used for all verbs, both transitive and intransitive. On the other hand, the future participle active is not found in the absolute absolute construction. However, Latin literature does make a considerable use of the past participle of deponent verbs, which, because they are active in meaning, can facilitate an escape from the somewhat tortuous convolution which the past participle passive sometimes involves, and for this reason they can be a useful device, too, to those translating English into Latin.The past participle of deponent verbs is often used with the force of a present participle, because, the present participle of such verbs, while possible, is uncommon. 

While the majority of ablative absolutes does involve participles, some consist of a noun with an adjective, or another, appositional, noun, in agreement with it. A number of well-known short phrases are associated with this construction: e.g. "me consule", in my consulship, (lit. with me [being] consul); "te auctore", at your suggestion, (lit. with you [being] the author); "me invito", against my will, (lit. with me [being] unwilling); "aequo Marte", on equal terms in battle, (lit. the battle [being] equal). In some cases, an adjective is used impersonally as an ablative absolute without a noun: e.g. "consulto", on purpose, (lit. [it being] deliberated on); "falso", falsely, (lit. [it being] deceived), "sereno", under a cloudless sky, lit. ([it being] clear). In such cases these single words effectively become adverbs. In all these cases, the incidence of an ablative absolute with a noun or adjective instead of a participle, or where an adjective is used impersonally, arises because the verb "sum" (I am) has no present participle. If a present participle of "sum" is understood, as in the literal translations indicated above, these phrases become participial too. 

Finally, with regard to the structural significance of ablative absolutes, it must be emphasised, that with very occasional exceptions, Latin authors would never use an ablative absolute if the participle could agree with either the subject or object of the sentence. So, the Latin for 'With the city captured, the soldiers proceeded to plunder it would always be "Urbem captam milites diripuebant" (lit. the soldiers plundered the having-been-captured city), and never "Urbe capta, milites eam diripiebant". The ablative absolute construction is effectively restricted to situations where the noun to which the participle in this type of phrase belongs is structurally 'detached' from the main clause of the sentence. Indeed, the word 'absolute' comes from the Latin verb "absolvo" (past participle "absolutus"), I loosen or set free. 

Why this construction is in the Ablative Case.

While attention has now been given to the participial implications of the ablative absolute, it is important to look also at the reasons for the use of the ablative case in this context. It seems most likely that the ablative absolute construction is directly linked to the 'Sociative-Instrumental or 'with'-case functions of the ablative case, and this usage should be distinguished from its True Ablative or 'from'-case, or its Locatival or 'in'-case functions. The ablative performing the Sociative-Instrumental or 'with'-case functions can be identified from these other functions of the case by the absence of a preposition or by the use of the preposition "cum" (with). Amongst its Sociative-Instrumental functions is the Ablative of Accompaniment. When used in this sense, the ablative denotes a person or thing in association with whom, or with which, an act is performed. In this context the preposition "cum" (with) is commonly used, but, when the ablative noun in the phrase is qualified by an epithet, i.e. an adjective or participle, the preposition is frequently omitted. In such instances, the words in the ablative may denote, not a concrete accompaniment of someone or something, but the circumstances under which the action is performed, or even the circumstances arising from it, e.g. 'He acted with my full blessing'; 'He attacked with great risk'. When used in this way an Ablative of Accompaniment is known as an Ablative of Attendant Circumstances, and the ablative absolute construction can best be regarded as a special type of this. 

The ablative absolute construction is to be distinguished from other instances of the Ablative of Attendant Circumstances in that the participle within the construction is, as stated above, predicative rather than attributive, that is it adds something additional to the predicate and does not simply adhere to its noun in an adjectival or adnominal fashion. Sometimes a phrase can be translated either as a straightforward ablative of attendant circumstances with an attributive adjective, or as an ablative absolute with a past participle being used predicatively. For instance the Latin sentence, "Ex urbe exibant capitibus opertis", can be translated  either 'They went out of the city with covered heads', or 'Having covered their heads (lit. their heads having been covered), they went out of the city'. (N.B. "opertis" comes from the past participle passive of "operio", I cover. In the first of these two translations it is used as an adjective, and in the second as the original participle.) Such ambiguity is not uncommon (See examples in Chapters 4, 12, 26 and 28 below.) 

It should also be pointed out that some see the ablative absolute as an outgrowth of the locatival functions of the ablative, and it is possible that certain locatival expressions, e.g. "terra marique", on land and sea, may well have contributed to its development. 

Instances of the Ablative Absolute in Caesar's "De Bello Gallico", Book III: (117)

Set out below, chapter by chapter, are all the instances of the ablative absolute construction to be found in this book. In each case, the line in which the phrase is to be found in Gould & Whiteley's text used by Sabidius in his translation, is shown, and the actual Latin words are highlighted in italics. Then two translations follow: firstly, a literal translation of Caesar's words as shown in Sabidius' translation (see the beginning of the introduction above), in which, in the case of past participles, the passive sense is retained; and, secondly, a colloquial translation is suggested. With regard to the latter it is emphasised that the number of possible alternatives is likely to be considerable. However some attempt has been made to exemplify the range of these possibilities in the different renderings offered, and the particular type of approach followed is highlighted in parenthesis at the end of each colloquial translation. Where a reversion to the active voice has occurred this is also indicated. 

Chapter 1: (6)

l.10:  secundis aliquot proeliis factis: 1) lit. several successful engagements having been conducted; 2) colloq. He fought several successful battles. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.10:  castellisque compluribus eorum pugnatis: 1) lit. and several of their forts having been stormed; 2) colloq. and stormed a number of their forts. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.11:  missis ad eum undique legatis: 1) lit. deputies having been sent to him from all sides; 2) colloq.  when envoys had been sent to him from all directions. (Temporal clause.)

l.12:  obsidibusque datis: 1) lit. and hostages having been given; 2) colloq. and (when they) had given hostages. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.12:  pace facta: 1) lit. peace having been made; 2) colloq. (when) peace had been made. (Temporal clause.)

l.16:  non magna adiecta planitie; 1) lit. not a great plain having been added nearby; 2) colloq. situated in a rather narrow valley. (Participial phrase.)  

Chapter 2: (1)

1.9:  detractis cohortibus duabus et compluribus singillatim: 1) lit. two cohorts and several men individually having been drawn off; 2) colloq. because two cohorts and several men on an individual basis had been detached. (Causal clause.)

Chapter 3: (9)

1.1:  his nuntiis acceptis: 1) lit. these messages having been received; 2) colloq. when he had received the news. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.4:  deditione facta: 1) lit. the surrender having been made; 2) colloq. after/since the enemy had surrendered. (Temporal or Causal clause in active voice.)

l.4:  obsidisque acceptis: 1) lit. and hostages having been received; 2) colloq. and (after/since) they had given hostages. (Temporal or Causal clause in active voice.)

l.5:  consilio celeriter convocato: 1) lit. a council having been speedily summoned; 2) colloq. he called a council. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.11:  interclusis itineribus:  1) lit. routes having been cut off; 2) colloq. because the enemy had blocked the road. (Causal clause in active voice.)

l.11:  prope iam desperata salute: 1) lit. their safety having now been nearly despaired of; 2) colloq. because they had now almost despaired of safety. (Causal clause in active voice.)

1.13:  impedimenta relictis: 1) lit. the baggage having been abandoned; 2) colloq. if they were to abandon the baggage. (Conditional clause in active voice.)

l.13:  eruptione facta: 1) lit. a sortie having been made; 2) colloq. (if they) were to make a sortie. (Conditional clause in active voice.)

l.15.  hoc reservato ad extremum consilio: this plan having been reserved for the final (resort); 2) colloq. keeping this plan as a last resort. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

Chapter 4:(3)

l.1;  brevi spatio interiecto: 1) lit. a short space (of time) having been placed between; 2) colloq. after a short interval. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.3:  signo dato: 1) lit. the signal having been given; 2) colloq. at/upon a given signal. (Prepositional phrase.)

1.5:  integris viribus: 1) lit. their strength (being) unimpaired; 2) colloq. as long as their strength was unimpaired. (Temporal clause.)

N.B. The last of these can be seen as an Ablative of Attendant Circumstances with a literal translation 'with unimpaired strength'. In this case 'integris' would then have attributive rather than the predicative force associated with the Ablative Absolute construction. See also the sixth absolute absolute in Chapter 26.

Chapter 5: (4)

l.3:  languidioribus nostris: 1) lit. our men (being) feebler; 2) colloq. since our men were losing their strength. (Causal clause.)

l.10:  eruptione facta: 1) lit. a sally having been made; 2) colloq. after they had made a sally. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.12:  convocatis centurionibus celeriter: 1) lit. the centurions having been speedily called together; 2) colloq. after/when he had speedily summoned the centurions. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.15:  dato signo: 1) lit. the signal having been given; 2) colloq. at /upon a given signal. (Prepositional phrase.)

Chapter 6: (9)

l.2:  subito ... eruptione facta: 1) lit. a sortie having suddenly been made; 2) colloq. when they had made a sudden sortie. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.4:  ita commutata fortuna: 1) so fortune having changed; 2) colloq. so there was a complete reversal of fortune. (Main clause.)

l.8:  plus tertia parte interfecto: 1) lit. more than a third part having been killed; 2) colloq. they slew more than a third of them. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.10:  omnibus hostium copiis fusis: 1) lit. all the forces of the enemy having been routed; 2) having put to flight all the forces of the enemy. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.11:  (omnibus hostium copiis) armisque exutis: 1) lit. and (all the forces of the enemy) having been stripped of their arms; 2) colloq. and having stripped them of their arms. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.12:  quo proelio facto: 1) lit. which battle having been undertaken; 2) colloq. after/when they had fought this battle. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.16:  omnibus eius vici aedificiis incensis: 1) lit. all the buildings of that village having been burned; 2) colloq. he burned all the buildings in that village. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.18:  nullo hoste prohibente: 1) lit. no enemy hindering (him); 2) colloq. as no enemy was hindering (him). (Causal clause.)

l.18:  (nullo hoste) iter demorante: 1) lit. (no enemy) delaying his march; 2) colloq. (as no enemy) was delaying his march. (Causal clause.) 

Chapter 7: (5)

l.1:  his rebus gestis: 1) lit. these things having been done; 2) colloq. after these events. (Prepositional phrase.)

1.2:  superatis Belgis: 1) lit. the Belgae having been defeated; 2) colloq. because the Belgae had been defeated. (Causal clause.)

l.2:  expulsis Germanis: 1) lit. the Germans having been driven out; 2) colloq. (because) the Germans had been driven out. (Causal clause.)

l.3:  victis in Alpibus Sedunis: 1) lit. the Seduni having been conquered in the Alps; 2) colloq. (because) the Seduni had been conquered in the Alps. (Causal clause.)

l.4:  inita hieme: 1) lit. winter having been entered into; 2) colloq. at the beginning of winter. (Prepositional phrase.)

Chapter 8: (3)

l.6:  paucis portibus interiectis: 1) lit. a few harbours having been placed between; 2) colloq. with only a few harbours here and there. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.13:  celeriter missis legatis per suos principes: 1) lit. envoys having been speedily sent by means of their leading citizens; 2) colloq. having despatched their leading citizens as envoys. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.19:  omni ora maritima celeriter ad suam sententiam producta: 1) lit. the whole sea coast having been speedily brought round to their opinion: 2) colloq. having rapidly brought the whole sea coast round to their opinion. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

Chapter 9: (3)

l.5:  his rebus celeriter administratis: 1) lit. these matters having been quickly organised; 2) colloq. when he had speedily organised these matters. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.8:  cognito Caesaris adventu: 1) Caesar's arrival having been learned of; 2) colloq. because they had learned of Caesar's arrival. (Causal clause in active voice.)

l.26:  his initis consiliis: 1) lit. these plans having been entered into; 2) colloq. on the adoption of these plans. (Prepositional phrase.)

Chapter 10: (2)

l.4:  datis obsidibus: 1) lit. hostages having been given; 2) colloq. after hostages had been given. (Temporal clause.)

l.6:  hac parte neglecta: 1) lit. this district having been disregarded; 2) if he were to disregard this district. (Conditional clause in active voice.)

Chapter 11: (O)

Chapter 12: (7)

l.5:  minuente aestu: 1) lit. the tide ebbing; 2) colloq. at the ebb-tide. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.8: extruso mari aggere et molibus: 1) lit. the sea having been excluded by a mound and moles; 2) colloq.  with a massive causeway keeping out the sea. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

1.9:  his oppidi moenibus adaequatis: 1) lit. these having been brought level to the walls of the stronghold; 2) colloq. when this was brought level to the walls of the stronghold. (Temporal clause.)

l.10:  magno numero navium appulso: 1) lit. a great number of ships having been brought in to land; 2) colloq. bringing up a large number of ships. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

1.16:  vasto atque aperto mari: 1) lit. the sea (being) vast and open; 2) colloq. because the sea was vast and open. (Causal clause.)

l.17:  magnis aestibus: 1) the tides (being) great; 2) colloq. (because) the tides were strong. (Causal clause)

l.17:  raris ac prope nullis portibus: 1) the harbours (being) scattered and nearly none at all; 2) colloq. (because) the harbours were few-and-far-between and almost non-existent. (Causal clause).

N.B.  The last three ablative absolutes can be seen as locatives or local ablatives, in which the preposition is often omitted where the noun has an adjective attached to it. See also Chapter 28.

Chapter 13: (0)

Chapter 14: (5)

l.1:  compluribus expugnatis oppidis: 1) lit. several strongholds having been stormed; 2) colloq. after he had stormed several strongholds. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.3:  captis oppidis: 1) lit. their strongholds having been stormed; 2) colloq. by the capture of their strongholds. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.12:  turribus autem excitatis: 1) lit. but towers having been raised (on deck); 2) colloq. even if towers were built (on deck). (Concessive clause.)

l.21:  quibus abscisis: 1) lit. which things having been severed; 2) with the (halyards) cut. (Participial phrase.)

l.24:  his ereptis: 1) lit. these things having been removed: 2) colloq. when these things were torn away. (Temporal clause.)

Chapter 15: (3)

l.1:  disiectis ... antemnis: 1) lit. their yard-arms having been dismantled; 2) colloq. when their ships' yard-arms had been torn down. (Temporal clause.)

l.5:  expugnatis compluribus navibus: 1) lit. several of their ships having been stormed; 2) colloq. since several of their ships had been boarded. (Temporal clause.)

l.7:  iam conversis in eam partem navibus quo ventus ferebat: 1) lit. their ships having now been turned to that quarter towards which the wind bore (them); 2) when they had steered their ships so as to run before the wind. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

Chapter 16: (2)

l.6:  quibus amissis: 1) lit. which things having been lost; 2) colloq. since all these (ships) had been lost. (Causal clause.)

l.11:  omni senatu necato: 1) the entire senate having been executed; 2) colloq. after he had executed the entire senate. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

Chapter 17: (4)

l.7:  senatu suo interfecto: 1) lit. their senate having been slain; 2) colloq. after puttting their senate to death. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.13:  idoneo omnibus rebus loco: 1) lit. his position (being) suitable in all respects; 2) in a spot suited to any emergency. (Prepositional phrase.)

1.15:  cotidieque productis copiis: 1) lit. his forces having been led out daily; 2) by leading his forces out daily. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.22:  eo absente: 1) lit. him being absent; 2) colloq. in the absence of the man. (Prepositional phrase.)

Chapter 18: (2)

l.21:  qua re concessa: 1) lit. which thing having been granted; 2) colloq. when their request was granted. (Temporal clause.)

l.22:  sarmentis virgultisque collectis: 1) lit. faggots and brushwood having been collected; 2) colloq.  after collecting faggots and brushwood. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

Chapter 19: (1)

l.6: impeditis hostibus: 1) lit. the enemy having been encumbered; 2) colloq. while the enemy were hampered. (Temporal clause.)

Chapter 20: (9)

l.6:  exercitu pulso: 1) lit. his army having been routed; 2) colloq. after his army had been defeated. (Temporal clause.)

l.8:  impedimentis amissis: 1) lit. his baggage having been lost; 2) colloq. with the loss of all his baggage. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.10:  re frumentaria provisa: 1) lit. a corn supply having been provided; 2) colloq. he arranged for a supply of corn. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.10:  auxiliis equitatuque comparato: 1) lit. auxiliaries and cavalry having been procured; 2) colloq. he procured auxiliaries and cavalry. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.11:  multis praeterea viris fortibus ... nominatim evocatis: 1) lit. also many brave men have been called up by name; 2) colloq.  he also called up on an individual basis many brave men. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.14:  cuius adventu cognito: 1) lit. whose arrival having been learned of; 2) colloq. on hearing of his arrival (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.15;  magnis copiis coactis equitatuque: 1) lit. great forces and much cavalry having been assembled; 2) colloq. they assembled a large force with much cavalry. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.18:  equitatu suo pulso: 1) lit. their cavalry having been routed; 2) colloq. when their cavalry had been defeated. (Temporal clause.)

l.19:  insequentibus nostris: 1) lit. our men pursuing (them); 2) colloq. with our men in pursuit. (Prepositional phrase.)

Chapter 21: (6)

l.5:  adulescentulo duce: 1) lit. their leader (being) a young man; 2) colloq. under a youthful leader. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.7:  magno numero interfecto: 1) lit. a great number having been slain; 2) colloq. after killing a large number of them. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.8:  quibus fortiter resistentibus: 1) lit. which men resisting bravely; 2) colloq. when/since they resisted bravely. (Temporal or Causal clause.)

1.10:  alias eruptione temptata: 1) lit. at one time a sally having been tried; 2) colloq. at first they attempted a sally. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.10:  alias cuniculis ad aggerem vineasque actis: 1) lit. at another time mines having been employed up to our rampart and mantlets; 2) colloq. then they pushed mines right up to our rampart and mantlets. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.16:  qua re impetrata: 1) lit. this request having been obtained: 2) on the acceptance of their request. (Prepositional phrase.)

Chapter 22: (3)

l.1:  in ea re omnium nostrorum intentis animis: 1) lit. the attention of all our men having been concentrated upon this matter; 2) colloq. while the attention of all our men was fully occupied with this. (Temporal clause.)

l.9:  eo interfecto: 1) lit. that man having been killed; 2) colloq. on the slaughter of that man. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.11:  clamore ... sublato: 1) a shout having been raised; 2) colloq. when a shout went up. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

Chapter 23: (2)

1.1:  armis obsidibusque acceptis: 1) lit. their arms and hostages having been received; 2) colloq. after receiving their arms and hostages.  (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.23:  hac re ad consilium delata: 1) this plan having been referred to a council-of-war; 2) on putting the plan to a council-of-war. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

Chapter 24: (9)

1.1:  prima luce productis omnibus copiis: 1) lit. all his forces having been led out at first light; 2) colloq. at dawn he brought out all his forces. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.1:  duplici acie instituta: 1) lit. a double battle-line having been formed; 2) colloq. he deployed them in two lines. (Main clause in active voice.)

1.2:  auxiliis in mediam aciem collectis: 1) lit. the auxiliaries having been gathered in the centre of the line; 2) colloq. with the auxiliaries being grouped in the centre. (Participial phrase.)

l.6:  obsessis victis: 1) lit. the roads having been beset; 2) colloq. by blocking the roads. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

1.6:  commeatu intercluso: 1) lit. supplies having been cut off (from our men); 2) colloq. by cutting off (our men's) supplies. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.11:  hoc consilio probato ab ducibus: 1) lit. this plan having been approved by their leaders; 2) colloq. their leaders approved this plan. (Main clause in active voice.)

1.11: productis Romanorum copiis: 1) lit. the Roman forces having been led out; 2) colloq. although the Romans  led out their forces. ( Concessive clause in active voice.)

l.13:  hac re perspecta: 1) lit. this measure having been perceived; 2) colloq. (Crassus) noted this. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.17:  omnibus cupientibus:  1) lit. everyone desiring (this); 2) colloq. amid general enthusiasm. (Prepositional phrase.)

Chapter 25: (2)

l.1:  multis telis coiectis: 1) lit. missiles having been hurled together; 2) colloq. by a rain of missiles. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.9:  circumitis hostium castris: 1) lit. the enemy's camp having been ridden around; 2) colloq. having ridden around the enemy's camp. (Participial phrase in active voice).

Chapter 26: (8)

l.4:  eductis eis cohortibus: 1) lit. those cohorts having been led out; 2) colloq. they led out those cohorts. (Main clause in active voice.)

1.5:  (eis cohortibus) longiore itinere circumductis: 1) lit. (those cohorts) having been led around by a longer route; 2) colloq. having led them around by a wide detour. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.6:  omnium oculis mentibusque ad pugnam intentis: 1) lit. the eyes and minds of all having been concentrated on the battle;  2) colloq. while the eyes and minds of all were intent upon the battle. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.9:  his prorutis: 1) lit. these having been demolished; 2) colloq. demolishing these. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.11:  clamore ab ea parte audito:  1) a shout from that quarter having been heard; 2) colloq. when shouting was heard in that quarter. (Temporal clause.)

l.12:  redintegratis viribus: 1) lit. their strength having been renewed; 2) colloq. with renewed strength. (Prepositional phrase.)

N.B. The above can also be seen as an ablative of attendant circumstances, in which case the suggested colloquial translation would become the literal one as well. In this case 'redintegratis' would have attributive rather than predicative force. See also the third ablative absolute in Chapter 4.


l.15:  desperatis omnibus rebus: 1) lit. all their affairs having been despaired of; 2) colloq. in utter despair. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.19:  vix parta quarta relicta: 1) lit. scarcely a fourth part having been left (alive); 2) colloq. barely a quarter escaped. (Main clause in active voice.)

Chapter 27: (1)

l.1:  hac audita pugna: 1) lit. this battle having been heard of; 2) colloq. when they heard about this battle. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

Chapter 28: (4)

l.2:  omni Gallia pacata: 1) lit. the whole of Gaul having been pacified; 2) colloq. while all Gaul was at peace. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.13:  dispersis in opere nostris: 1) lit. our men having been dispersed on their duties; 2) colloq. our men were working in scattered groups. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.16:  compluribus interfectis: 1) lit. many (of the enemy) having been killed; 2) colloq. after killing many (of the enemy). (Temporal clause ina ctive voice.)

l.17: impeditioribus locis: 1) lit. the ground (being) rather difficult: 2) colloq. over rather difficult ground. (Prepositional phrase.)

N.B. The last of these can be seen as a locative or local ablative, where the preposition can be omitted with regard to a noun to which an adjective is attached. See also Chapter 12. In that case the colloquial translation shown here would become the literal translation and 'impeditioribus' would become attributive rather than predicative in function.

Chapter 29: (4)

l.2:  inermibus imprudentibus que militibus: 1) lit. our soldiers (being) unarmed and unprepared; 2) colloq.   while our soldiers were unarmed and unprepared. (Temporal clause.)

l.6:  magno spatio paucis diebus confecto: 1) lit. a great space having been cleared in a few days; 2) colloq. a great space was cleared in a few days. (Main clause.)

l.12:  vastatis omnibus eorum agris: 1) lit. all their fields having been ravaged; 2) colloq. after ravaging all their fields. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.12:  vicis aedificiis incensis: 1) lit. their villages and buildings having been burned; 2) colloq. (after) burning their villages and buildings. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

CAESAR: "DE BELLO GALLICO": BOOK III

Introduction.

Sabidius has previously translated two other books from Caesar's account of the Gallic Wars: his translation of Book V was published on this blog on 31st August 2010 and that of Book I on 1st January 2011. He has now turned to Book III, which recounts the events of 56 B.C., the third year of Caesar's campaigns in Gaul.. This book, in twenty-nine chapters only, is the shortest of the eight books, of which this great work is composed, and it is also unusual in that Caesar scarcely appears at all as an actor in the events described in it. Most of the victories are the work of his competent subordinates: Galba in the Alps in the autumn of 57 B.C., Decimus Brutus in the naval battle against the Veneti, Sabinus against the Venelli, and Publius Crassus against the tribes of Aquitaine. Caesar himself appears only as leading the land forces that were largely confined to watching Brutus' makeshift fleet triumphantly conquer the naval forces of the Veneti, and at the end of the book in the indecisive campaign against the Morini and Menapii. Nevertheless, it was Caesar who planned the successful strategy and allocation of forces that lay behind these campaigns , and back home in Rome he would still have been seen as responsible for the many successes  achieved, and thus meriting the fame and glory associated with them. 

What was particularly significant about all these campaigns was that the fiction that Caesar was fighting essentially only defensive actions could no longer be sustained. In no case were either the interests of Rome or those of any of its Gallic allies being significantly threatened by any of the tribes with whom Caesar engaged in these campaigns, and thus by this stage it had become clear to all of the Gauls that Caesar's intention was one of long-term conquest. While Caesar was subject to significant criticism for this in the Senate, where Cato the Younger and his 'Optimate' clique attacked him for engaging in unauthorised wars, for which there was no justification, by this point Caesar's record of glorious victories, and the amount of booty in treasure and slaves which he had accumulated thereby, had made him so popular in Rome that he no longer needed to maintain the pretence that his actions were defensive. However, now that their traditional independence was evidently under threat, Caesar was increasingly confronted with widespread resistance within Gaul, which was eventually to blaze into the nationwide rebellion led by Vercingetorix in 52 B.C. It is worthy of note that despite his clear intentions of conquest, Caesar seems to understand, if not, to sympathise with the Gauls' desire for freedom:  in Chapter 8 of this book he refers to the Veneti and their allies urging other tribes "to choose to remain in that freedom which they had received from their ancestors rather than to endure servitude under the Romans"; and in Chapter 10 he talks of Caesar's understanding that  "all men were eager for liberty and hate the condition of slavery". 

In terms of Caesar's grammatical style, the reader is referred to the section on this contained in the introduction to Sabidius' translation of Book V. See in particular the comments on Caesar's regular use of the grammatical construction  known as the "Ablative absolute". In Book III there are some 117 instances of the "Ablative absolute", a device which is highly economical in terms of the number of words employed and thus particularly appropriate to a literary genre involving notes or despatches from the front. The book also contains a number of examples of the use of the gerundive to express, inter alia, obligation or necessity, and of the impersonal passive, a construction which largely defies an exact literal translation. Both of these constructions are also favoured by Caesar. These three constructions are the subject of a systematic analysis at the end of this translation: instances of the ablative absolutes are to be found in a separate article on this blog dated 20th May 2012, and those of gerunds/gerundives and impersonal passives in the appendix below. Despite the occasional difficulty, Sabidius maintains in his rendering of Book III his practice of literal translation of the Latin text. This means undoubtedly that the English can seem at times somewhat laboured; on the other hand the very long sentences which are sometimes involved, despite their apparent clumsiness and the opaqueness of meaning to which such grammatical complexity can lead, also facilitates a build-up, or crescendo, of tension and excitement, only to be released by the main verb at the end of the sentence. One additional practice used in this translation is that all main verbs are shown in italics. Every sentence must of course contain at least one main verb, although compound sentences can contain two or more. Where, within a given piece of text, main verbs are relatively scarce, and thus sentences are lengthy, it is likely that this is an example of that build-up of excitement just referred to. One departure from Sabidius' usual practice of literal translation, however, is that in this translation the regular employment by Caesar of the "historic present" in narrative, i.e. where the past tense is replaced by the present tense for the purpose of vividness, has been ignored, and the present tense has been translated by an English verb in the past or aorist tense. This is because in Sabidius' view the constant repetition of the present tense in a narrative recording past events adds little to the meaning and can become monotonous.    

The text for this translation is taken from "Caesar, Gallic War 3", edited by H.E.Gould, M.A., and J.L. Whiteley, M.A., Ph.D., in "Modern School Classics" series, published by Macmillan, 1954. Attention has been paid to the notes attached both to this edition and to those accompanying the edition of "Caesar's Gallic War", edited by J.B.Greenhough et al., Ginn & Co., 1898.

ALPINE CAMPAIGN (Chapters 1-6)

Chapter 1.

When he was setting out for Italy, Caesar sent Servius (Sulpicius) Galba with the twelfth legion and a detachment of cavalry to (the territory of the Nantuates, Veragri and Seduni, which stretches from Lake Lemannus (i.e. Geneva) and from the river Rhone to the summits of the Alps. The reason for sending (him) was that he wished the route through the Alps, by which merchants were accustomed to go (but only) at great risk and with heavy tolls (being levied), to be opened up. He allowed him, if he thought it was necessary (lit. there was a need), to station the legion in these places for the sake of taking up winter quarters. Several successful engagements having been conducted and several of their forts having been stormed, deputies having been sent to him from all sides, and hostages having been given and peace having been made, he decided to station two cohorts in (the district of) the Nantuates, and to winter himself with the remaining cohorts of this legion in a village of the Veragri, which is called Octodurus; this village, with a small plain close by (lit. not a great plain having been added nearby), is shut in on all sides by very high mountains. Since it was divided into two parts by a river, he granted one part of this village to the Gauls, (and) he assigned the other part, having been evacuated (lit. left empty) by them, to his cohorts. He fortified this place with a rampart and a ditch.  

Chapter 2. 

When several days in winter quarters had passed and he had ordered corn to be conveyed thither, he was suddenly informed (lit. made more sure) through his scouts that everyone had withdrawn during the night from that part of the village which he had granted to the Gauls, and that the mountains, which were overhanging, were occupied by a very great multitude of Seduni and Veragri. It had happened for several reasons, that the Gauls had suddenly formed a plan for the war to be renewed and the legion to be overwhelmed: firstly, because they despised, on account of its small number, a legion, and that not at its  fullest, with two cohorts and several men individually, who had been sent for the sake of provisions, having been drawn off; then also because, on account of the disadvantageousness of its position, they supposed that, when they themselves charged down from the mountains into the valley and hurled their missiles, not even their first attack could be withstood. Besides (lit. It was added that) they were grieving that their children had been taken away from them in the name of hostages, and they were quite convinced (lit. they had [it] persuaded to themselves) that the Romans were attempting to seize the peaks of the Alps and to add those districts to their neighbouring province, not only for the sake of the routes but also (for the sake) of perpetual occupation. 

Chapter 3.

These messages having been received, since neither the construction (lit. work) of the winter-quarters, nor its fortifications had been fully completed, nor had sufficient provision been made (lit. had it been sufficiently provided for) with regard to the corn and the rest of the supplies, because, with the surrender having been made and hostages having been received, he had thought that nothing concerning warfare should (lit. was needing to) be feared, a council having been speedily summoned, Galba proceeded to elicit opinions. Since such a very serious (and) sudden danger had occurred, and by now almost all the higher ground was seen (to have been) packed (lit. filled) with a host of armed men, (and since) neither could anyone come (lit. it be arrived at) to reinforce them (lit. for a reinforcement) nor supplies be brought up, the routes having been blocked (lit. cut off), their safety having now been nearly despaired of, some (lit. not no) opinions of this kind were expressed in this council, (namely) that, the baggage having been abandoned and a sortie having been made, they should strive for safety by the same routes as they had arrived thither. However, it seemed good to the greater part, this plan having been reserved for the final (resort), meanwhile to await the outcome of the situation and to defend the camp.

Chapter 4.

A short interval having intervened, (so short) that time was scarcely given for those matters which they had decided to be arranged and carried out, the enemy, the signal having been given, charged down (and) hurled  stones and javelins against the rampart. At first, our men, their strength unimpaired, resisted bravely, nor did they discharge any missile in vain from their higher position, (and), as any part of the camp, having been stripped of defenders appeared to be hard pressed, thither they ran to meet (the danger) and brought help, but they were overcome in this (respect), that (when) the enemy (soldiers), exhausted by the length of the fighting, withdrew from the battle, others, with their strength unimpaired, took their place; none of these things could be done by our men on account of their small number, and not only was no opportunity given to an exhausted (man) of departing from the battle, but no chance (was given) even to a wounded man of that place where he had been stationed being relinquished and of himself being withdrawn.

Chapter 5.

When the battle had been now been raging (lit. it was being fought) for more than six hours continuously, and not only their strength but also their missiles were failing our men, and the enemy were pressing on more fiercely, our men (being) feebler, (and) were proceeding to pull down the rampart and fill in the ditches, and the situation had now been brought to a desperate plight, Publius Sextius Baculus, the senior centurion (lit. centurion of the first company), whom we have mentioned (as) having been weakened by several wounds in the battle with the Nervii, and also Gaius Volusenus, a military tribune (lit. a tribune of the soldiers), a man of great resourcefulness and courage, ran up to Galba and told (him) that there was (only) one hope of safety, (namely) if, a sally having been made, they were to risk the last resort. Accordingly, the centurions having been speedily called together, he instructed the soldiers to break off the battle for a short time and only to parry the missiles discharged (against them), and to refresh themselves from their labours, (and then) afterwards, the signal having been given, to burst out of their camp and to place all hope of safety in their courage.

Chapter 6.  

They did as they were ordered, and, a sortie having suddenly been made from all the gates, they left the enemy the opportunity neither of learning what was happening nor of themselves being rallied. So, fortune having changed, they surrounded on every side and slew those (lit. they slew those having been surrounded on every side) who had come in the hope of their camp being occupied, and out of more than thirty thousand men, which number of barbarians it was agreed to have come to the camp, more than a third part having been killed, they put (lit. threw) the terrified remnants to (lit. into) flight and did not permit (them) to take up their position even on the higher ground. Thus all the forces of the enemy having been routed and having been stripped of their arms, they withdrew (lit. betook themselves) into their camp and fortifications. This battle having been undertaken, because Galba was unwilling to tempt providence too often, and (because) he remembered that he had come into winter-quarters with one purpose (and) he saw that he had met with different circumstances, (and being) especially disturbed by the scarcity of corn and supplies, on the next day, all the buildings of that village having been burned, he hastened to return to the province, and with no enemy hindering (him) or delaying his march, he brought the legion unscathed into (the territory of) the Nantuates, (and) thence into (that of) the Allobroges, and wintered there.

NAVAL CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE VENETI (Chapters 7-16)

Chapter 7.

These things having been done, when Caesar thought that Gaul was pacified for all these reasons, the Belgae having been defeated, the Germans having been driven out, (and) the Seduni having been conquered in the Alps, and so had set out for Illyricum at the beginning of winter (lit. winter having been entered), because he wished to visit those tribes and to get to know their territories, a sudden war broke out (lit. arose) in Gaul. The cause of that war was this. The young man Publius (Licinius) Crassus had taken up winter-quarters with the seventh legion among the Andes, near the Oceanic sea (i.e. the Atlantic Ocean). Because there was a scarcity of corn in those places, he despatched (some) cavalry commanders and military tribunes to several of the neighbouring states for the sake of (procuring) corn; among this number Titus Terrasidius was sent to the Esubii, Marcus Trebius Gallus to the Curiosolites, (and) Quintus Velanius with Titus Silius to the Veneti.    

Chapter 8.

The authority of this state is by far the most considerable of all (the tribes) on the sea coast of those regions, because the Veneti have a very great number of ships in which they have been accustomed to sail to Britain and (thus) they surpass the rest in their knowledge and experience of nautical affairs, and in the great and exposed violence of the sea, with (only) a few harbours intervening (lit. placed between), which they themselves hold, they treat almost all (those) who have been accustomed to make use of that sea (as) their tributaries. A beginning (of their revolt) was made by them through (lit. of) Silus and Velanius being detained, because they thought that they should recover through them the hostages which they had given to Crassus. The neighbouring (peoples), having been induced by their influence, as the plans of the Gauls are sudden and hasty, detained Trebius and Terrasidius for the same reason, and, envoys having been speedily sent by means of their leading citizens, they swore an oath among themselves, (saying) that they would do nothing except by a common plan, and would bear the same outcome of fortune; they urged the remaining states to choose to remain in that freedom which they had received from their ancestors (rather) than to endure the servitude of the Romans. The whole maritime coast having been quickly brought round to their opinion, they sent a common embassy to Publius Crassus; (to say that) if he wanted to recover his men he should send their hostages back to them.

Chapter 9.

Caesar, having been informed (lit. made more sure) of these things by Crassus, because he was quite a long  distance away himself, ordered war-ships (lit. long ships) to be built in the meantime on the river Loire, which flows into the Ocean, rowers to be drafted from the province, (and) sailors and helmsmen to be acquired. These matters having been quickly organised, he himself, as soon as he could, considering (lit. by reason of) the time of the year, hastened to the army. The Veneti and the other states also, Caesar's arrival having been learned of, (and) at the same time because they understood how great a crime they had committed (lit. taken upon themselves), (in that) ambassadors, a title which had always been sacred and inviolate in the eyes of (lit. to) all nations, had been detained by themselves and thrown into chains, began to prepare for a war befitting (lit. in proportion to) the greatness of their danger, and especially to provide for those things which pertained to the employment of ships, with the greater hope for this (reason), that they had much confidence in the nature of their position. They knew that land routes were cut off by estuaries,(and) that our navigation (was) hampered on account of our ignorance of the locality and the scarcity of harbours, and they trusted that our armies would not be able to remain for long amongst them on account of the shortage of corn; and, although everything might now turn out contrary to their expectation, yet (they knew) that they were very powerful in ships (and) that the Romans had neither any supply of ships nor had knowledge of the shallows, harbours, (and) islands of those places where they were going to wage the war; and they understood that navigation in an enclosed sea (i.e. the Mediterranean) was very different from (navigation) in a very vast and very open ocean (i.e. the Atlantic). These plans having been adopted (lit. having been entered into), they fortified their towns, conveyed corn from the fields, (and) mustered as many ships as they could in Venetia, where it was agreed that Caesar would first wage the war. They joined to themselves (as) allies for that war the Osismi, the Lexovii, the Namnetes, the Ambiliates, the Morini, the Diablintes (and) the Menapii; (and) they summoned auxiliaries from Britain, which lies (lit. has been placed) opposite those regions.

Chapter 10.

There were these difficulties, which we have shown above, in the war being waged, but many things, nevertheless, urged Caesar to (undertake) that war: the wrongs of Roman knights having been detained, the renewal of hostilities after their surrender, the revolt after hostages had been given (lit. hostages having been given), the conspiracy of so many states, and, especially (lit. in the first place), (the fear) lest, this district having been disregarded, the other tribes might think that the same thing was permitted to them. Therefore, since he understood that almost all the Gauls were eager for revolution (lit. new things) and easily and quickly aroused towards war, while all men were, by nature, eager for liberty and hate the condition of slavery, he thought that his army ought (lit. was needing) to be divided and more widely distributed by him, before more states should join the revolt.

Chapter 11.

He therefore sent his legate Titus (Atius) Labienus with the cavalry to the Treviri who live (lit. are) nearest to the Rhine. He instructed him (to) visit the Remi and the other Belgae and keep (them) in their allegiance, and to hold back the Germans, who were said to have been summoned by the Belgae to their assistance, if they were to attempt to cross the river in force in their boats. He ordered Publius Crassus to set out for Aquitania with twelve legionary cohorts and a large number of cavalry, lest (any) auxiliaries should be sent into Gaul from these nations and such great tribes be united. He sent his legate Titus Titurius Sabinus with three legions to (the territories of) the Venelli, the Curiosolites and the Lexovii in order to see to it that the forces there were kept apart (from the rest). He appointed the young man Decimus (Junius) Brutus as commander of the fleet and those Gallic ships which he had ordered (him) to requisition from the Pictones and the Santoni and the other pacified regions, and he commanded (him) to proceed towards (the territory of) the Veneti as soon as he could. He himself hastened thither with the land forces.

Chapter 12.

The sites of their strongholds were generally of such a kind that, having been placed on the end of tongues (of land)  and on promontories, they had neither access by foot when the tide had rushed in (lit. urged itself on) from the deep (sea), (something) which always occurs twice in the space of twelve hours, neither by ships, because, with the tide ebbing again, the ships would be dashed upon the shoals. Thus by either circumstance the storming of their strongholds was impeded; and, if at any time, having by chance been overcome by the greatness of our siege-works, the sea having been excluded by a mound and moles, and with these having been brought level with the walls of the town, they began to despair of their fortunes, a great number of ships, of (which) thing they had a great supply, having been brought in to land, they used to carry away all their (possessions) and withdrew (lit. betook themselves) to the nearest towns: there they again defended themselves by the same advantages of location. They continued to do this the more easily for the great part of the summer because our ships were held back by the storms, and the difficulty of sailing, with the sea (being) vast and open, the tides (being) strong, (and) harbours (being) scattered and almost none at all, was very great.

Chapter 13.

For indeed their ships had been built and equipped in this manner: their keels (were) somewhat flatter than (those) of our ships, whereby they could the more easily cope with the shallows and the ebbing of the tide; their prows (were) raised very high (out of  the water), and likewise their sterns (were) adapted to the magnitude of the waves and storms; the ships (were built) entirely of oak with the purpose of whatever violence and damage being endured; the thwarts, (made of timber) beams a foot in breadth, (were) fastened with iron bolts with the thickness of a (man's) thumb; their anchors (were) secured by iron chains instead of rope-cables; in place of (canvas) sails (they had) skins and leather hides beaten thin, (and) these (were used) either on account of a want of flax and their ignorance of its application, or for this (reason), which is more like the truth, because they thought that such great storms and blasts of wind (could not) be withstood, and that such a great weight of ships could not be properly enough controlled by (canvas) sails. The encounter of our fleet with these ships was of such a kind that it was superior only in speed and in the propulsion of the oars, (while) everything else was more suitable and more fitting for them, considering the nature of the place, (and) considering the violence of the storms. For neither could our ships damage theirs with beaks (so great was the solidity within them), nor was a missile easily thrust (at them) on account of their height, and for the same reason they were less easily held fast by grapnels. Besides (lit. It was added that), whenever the wind began to rage and they ran before (lit. gave themselves to) the wind, they could both weather the storm more easily, and having been left (aground) by the tide they did not fear the rocks and the reefs at all; (but) the risk of all these things was much to be dreaded by our ships.

Chapter 14.

Several strongholds having been stormed, Caesar, when he realised that so much effort was being spent in vain, and that the flight of the enemy, their strongholds having been taken, could not be stopped, and that no harm could be done to them (lit. that it could not be harmed with regard to them), decided that the fleet should (lit. was needing to) be awaited. When it assembled, and was first seen by the enemy, about two hundred and twenty of their ships, fully prepared and very well equipped with every kind of weapon, having set sail from the harbour, came to anchor opposite our (ships); and it was not at all clear to Brutus, who was in command of the fleet, or to the military tribunes or the centurions, to whom the individual ships had been assigned, what they were to do, or what tactic for battle they should pursue. For they had realised that no damage could be done by their beaks; even with towers having been built (on their decks), yet the height of the sterns of the barbarian ships exceeded these, so that missiles could not be cast up from our lower position effectively enough, and (those) discharged by the Gauls fell more heavily (upon us). One thing provided by our men was of great service, sharp pointed hooks inserted in and bound to long poles, in shape not unlike the wall hooks (used in sieges). Whenever the ropes which fastened the yard-arms to the masts were caught and pulled by these, our vessels having been impelled by oars, they were snapped. These having been severed, the yard-arms fell on (to the deck), so that, since all the hope of the Gallic ships consisted in their sails and rigging, these having been removed, the entire management of the ships was taken away at one time. The rest of the contest depended upon courage, in which our soldiers were easily superior, and the more (so) because the engagement was carried out in the sight of Caesar and the whole army, so that no exploit, a little braver (than usual), could be unobserved; for all the hills and the higher ground, from which there was a close view down upon the sea, were occupied by the army.

Chapter 15.

Their yard-arms having been dismantled, as we have said, although two and (in some cases) three of their ships had surrounded each one (of ours), the soldiers strove with the greatest energy to board the enemy's ships. After the barbarians observed this happening, several of their ships having been stormed, since no remedy at all was discovered, they hastened to seek safety in flight. And their ships having now been steered so as to run before the wind (lit. having now been turned to that quarter towards which the wind bore [them]), so great a calm and lull suddenly prevailed that they could not move themselves out of their position. This circumstance was indeed exceedingly opportune for the business being completed: for our men, having pursued (them), stormed (them) one by one, so that very few out of all their number, (and those) by the intervention of night, reached land, since the battle lasted (lit. it was fought) almost from the fourth hour right up to sunset (lit. the setting of the sun).

Chapter 16.

 With this battle the war against the Veneti and (the tribes of) the whole sea coast was finished. For not only all the men of military age (lit. young men), (and) all too of more serious age, in whom there was something of counsel or position, had mustered there, but also they had assembled what there had been of ships anywhere in that one place; these having been lost, the rest (of the men) had neither (any place) to which they could withdraw (lit. betake themselves) neither any means (lit. [any plan] how)  to defend their strongholds. So, they surrendered themselves and all their possessions to Caesar. Caesar decided that it was necessary that punishment be inflicted (lit. it was needing to be punished) upon them the more severely in order that the rights of ambassadors should be respected more carefully by the barbarians in the future (lit. for the remaining time). Accordingly, the entire senate having been executed, he sold the rest as slaves (lit. under the wreathe).

CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE VENELLI (Chapters 17-19)

Chapter 17.

While these things were being done in (the lands of) the Veneti, Quintus Titurius Sabinus, with those forces which he had received from Caesar, arrived at the territories of the Venelli. Viridovix held sway over these people, and held the supreme command (lit. the summit of power) over all those states which had revolted, (and) from which he had mustered an army and large levies; and in those few days the Aulerci, the Eburovices and the Lexovii, their senate having been slain, because they were unwilling to be promoters of the war, closed their gates (to us), and united themselves with Viridovix; and moreover there had assembled from all quarters of Gaul a great multitude of desperate men and brigands, whom the hope of plundering and eagerness for fighting were calling away from the cultivation of the fields and their daily labour. Sabinus kept himself within his camp, his position (being) suitable in all respects, although Viridovix had encamped over against him at a distance of two miles (lit. thousand [paces]), and, his forces having been led out daily, gave (him) an opportunity of fighting, so that Sabinus not only now came into contempt with regard to the enemy but was even censured considerably (lit. not in no way) by the taunts of our soldiers; and he gave so great an impression of cowardice that the enemy now dared to approach up to the (very) rampart of the camp. He did this for the following reason, because he did not think that it was right for a legate to fight (lit. that it was right to be fought by a legate) with so great a multitude of the enemy, especially with him who held the supreme command (lit. the summit of power) being absent, except on advantageous ground or with some (favourable) opportunity having been offered.

Chapter 18.

This impression of cowardice having been established, he chose a certain Gaul, a suitable and cunning man,  out of those whom he had with him as auxiliaries (lit. for the sake of help). He persuaded him by great rewards and promises (of more) to go over to the enemy, and he explained (to him) what he wanted to be done. He, when he came to them as a deserter, emphasised the fear of the Romans, (and) he told (them) with what difficulties Caesar was being harassed by the Veneti, and that it was not further off but that Sabinus would on the next night secretly lead his army out of their camp for the sake of help being brought to Caesar. When this was heard, they all cried out together that the opportunity of their enterprise being successfully conducted ought not to (lit. was not properly to) be lost, (and) that they ought to make a march (lit. it was right for it to be gone) to the camp. Many circumstances encouraged the Gauls to (adopt) this plan: the dithering of Sabinus in previous days, the corrobatory statement of the deserter, the want of provisions, for which thing provision had been made (lit. it had been provided) with insufficient care (lit. too little carefully) by them, the hope concerning the war of the Veneti, and because, in most cases, men freely believe what they wish. Induced by these things, they did not let Viridovix and the other leaders go from the council before it was agreed by them that they should take up arms and hasten to our camp. This permission (lit. thing) having been granted, rejoicing as if victory were (lit. having been) assured, (and) faggots and brushwood having been gathered, with which they could fill the Romans' trenches, they proceeded to the camp.

Chapter 19.

The position of the camp was on high ground (lit. raised) and sloping gently (lit. gradually) from its base for about a mile (lit. a thousand paces). Hither they hastened with great speed in order that the least possible space (of time) might be given to the Romans, and (so) they arrived out of breath. Having encouraged his men, Sabinus gave the signal to (them) desiring (it). The enemy having been encumbered on account of those burdens which they were carrying, he ordered a sally to be made suddenly from the gates. It happened, owing to the advantage of our position, the enemy's lack of skill and fatigue, the valour of our soldiers and their experience in former battles, that they could not withstand even one attack of our men, and they fled (lit. turned their backs) at once. Our soldiers pursuing them, hampered (as they were), with unimpaired vigour, slew a great number of them; the cavalry, pursuing the rest, left few (alive), (namely those) who had escaped from the rout. Thus at one (and the same) time Sabinus was informed (lit. made more sure) of the naval battle and Caesar of Sabinus' victory: and all the states immediately surrendered to Titurius. For as the temper of the Gauls is eager and ready for war to be undertaken, so their mind is weak and not at all (lit. very little) resisting at calamities being endured.

SOUTHERN GAUL (Chapters 20-27)

Chapter 20.

At about the same time, Publius Crassus, when he had arrived in Aquitania, a district which, as has been said before, by reason both of its width of territories and its great number of people, is reckoned to be a third part of Gaul, since he understood that he had to wage war (lit. that war was needing to be be waged by him) in those places, where a few years before the legate Lucius Valerius Praeconinus, his army having been routed, had been killed, and whence the proconsul Lucius Mallius, his baggage having been lost, had fled, realised that he ought to employ no ordinary care (lit. that no ordinary care was needing to be employed by him). Therefore, the corn supply having been provided, auxiliaries and cavalry having been procured, (and) also many brave men having been called up individually (lit. by name) from Tolosa, Carcaso and Narbo, cities of the province of Gaul which are bordering on these regions, he led his army into (the territory of) the Sontiates. His arrival having been learned of, the Sontiates, great forces and (much) cavalry, in which their strength mostly lay, having been assembled, having assailed our column (while) on the march, engaged first in a cavalry battle, then, their cavalry having been routed and with our men pursuing (them), suddenly displayed their infantry forces, which they had positioned in ambush in a valley. These, attacking our men, (while they were) dispersed (lit. disordered), renewed the battle.

Chapter 21.

The battle raged (lit. it was fought) for a long time and vigorously, since the Sontiates, relying on their previous victories, considered that the safety of the whole of Aquitania depended on their valour, but our men were wanting (it) to be seen what they could accomplish, their leader (being) a young man, without their commander-in-chief and without the rest of the legions: however, the enemy, worn out by their wounds, fled  (lit. turned their backs). A great number having been slain, Crassus began to attack the stronghold of the Sontiates (while) on the march. With them resisting bravely, he brought up mantlets and towers. At one time a sally having been tried, at another time mines having been employed up to our rampart and mantlets (at which work the Aquitani are by far the most skilful, on account of the fact that in many places among them there are copper mines and diggings), when they realised that nothing could be achieved by these operations due to the diligence of our men, they sent envoys to Crassus and besought (him) to accept their surrender (lit. them in surrender). This request having been obtained, having been ordered to give up their arms, they did (so).

Chapter 22. 

And, the attention of all our men having been concentrated upon this matter, in another part of the town, Adiatunnus, who held the supreme command (lit. the summit of power), with six hundred devoted followers, whom they call soldurii, whose compact (of association) is this, that they enjoy all the conveniences in life together with those to whose friendship they have committed themselves, (and), if anything violent (lit. through violence) happens to them, that they either endure the same fate or commit suicide (lit. inflict death upon themselves); nor yet in the memory of men has anyone been found of such a kind that, that man to whose friendship he had devoted himself, having been killed, he refused to die: Adiatunnus (as I said), endeavouring to make a sally with these men, when, a shout having been raised from that part of the fortification, our soldiers rushed together to arms, and a battle had been fought (lit. it had been fought) there fiercely, having been driven back into the town, yet he obtained from Crassus (an agreement) that he should enjoy the same conditions of surrender (as the other inhabitants).

Chapter 23.

Their arms and hostages having been received, Crassus set out for (the territories of) the Vocates and the Tarusates. Then indeed the barbarians, having been disturbed because they had learned that a town fortified both by the nature of its position and by the hand (of man) (had been) stormed in the few days within which their arrival thither had occurred (lit. it had come thither), began to send out envoys in every direction, to conspire together, to give hostages between themselves, (and) to equip troops. Ambassadors were also sent to those states which are in (lit. of) Hither Spain bordering upon Aquitania: auxiliaries and leaders are summoned thence. Upon their arrival they endeavoured to wage war with great confidence and with a great host of men. Indeed those who had been together with Quintus Sertorius for all those years and were thought to possess great knowledge of warfare (lit. the military business) were chosen (as) their leaders. These, according to the practice of the Roman people, proceed to take up (advantageous) positions, to fortify camps, (and) to cut off our men from supplies. When Crassus noticed this, (and also) that his forces, on account of their small number, (could) not readily be dispersed, that the enemy were roaming around and blocking the roads, and (yet) they had left a sufficient guard for their camp, that on account of this reason his corn and provisions could not readily be brought up, (while) the number of the enemy was increasing daily, he thought that he ought not (lit. that it was not right) to delay, but that he should decide the issue in battle. This plan having been put to a council-of-war, when he realised that everyone felt the same (as he did), he appointed the following day for the battle.

Chapter 24.

All his forces having been led out at dawn (lit. first light), a double battle-line having been formed, (and) the auxiliaries having been grouped in the centre of the line, he waited (to see) what plan the enemy would adopt. Although, on account of their great number and their ancient reputation in war and the small number of  our men, they thought they would fight safely, yet they considered it to be safer, the roads having been blocked and supplies cut off (from our men), to gain a victory without any damage (lit. wound); and, if the Romans, on account of their lack of a corn supply, should begin to retreat (lit. withdraw themselves), they had it in mind to attack (them), encumbered (as they would be) in column-of-route and with a less resolute (lit. weaker) spirit under their packs. This plan having been approved by their leaders, (and) the Roman forces having been led out, they kept themselves in camp. This measure having been perceived, since by their own hesitation and (seeming) more nervous than their reputation the enemy had rendered our soldiers more eager for fighting, and the voices of all were heard (saying) that they ought not to wait (lit. that it was not right for it to be awaited) any longer but that they should advance against (lit. that it should be gone to) the camp, Crassus, having encouraged his men, (and) with all desiring (this), hastened  to the enemy's camp.

Chapter 25.

There, while some were filling up the ditches (and) others, many missiles having been hurled together, were driving the defenders from the rampart and the fortifications, and the auxiliaries, upon whom Crassus did not much rely in battle, by stones and missiles being supplied, and sods of turf being conveyed for the purpose of a mound (being built) a mound, presented the appearance and (gave) the impression of fighting men, while also the enemy were fighting (lit. it was being fought by the enemy) resolutely and bravely (lit. not timidly) and missiles, discharged from their higher position, were falling with good effect (lit. were not falling in vain), the cavalry, the enemy's camp having been ridden around, reported to Crassus that their camp had not been fortified with the same care on the side of the decuman (i.e. rear) gate, and that it offered an easy approach.

Chapter 26.

Having exhorted the commanders of the cavalry to arouse their men by great rewards and promises (of more), Crassus pointed out (to them) what he wanted to be done. They, as they (lit. it) had been ordered, those cohorts, which, having been left as a guard for the camp, were unwearied by exertion, having been led out, and having been led around by a longer route, so that they could not be seen from the enemy's camp, with the eyes and minds of all (being) intent upon the battle, quickly arrived at those fortifications of which we have spoken, and, these having been demolished, they got a footing in the enemy's camp before (they could) be clearly seen by them or what thing was being done could be realised. Then indeed, a shout from that quarter having been heard, our men, their strength having been renewed, (something) which is usually wont to occur in the expectation of victory, began to fight more vigorously. The enemy having been surrounded on all sides, (and) with all their affairs having been despaired of, endeavoured to cast themselves down (all) along the ramparts and to seek safety in flight. The cavalry, pursuing them over the very open plains, with scarcely a quarter (lit. a fourth part) out of the number of fifty thousand, which had gathered from Aquitania and (the lands of) the Cantabri, having been left (alive), returned (lit. betook themselves) late at night (lit. much of the night [having passed]) to the camp.

Chapter 27.

This battle having been heard of, the greatest part of Aquitania surrendered itself to Crassus and of its own accord sent hostages; among this number were the Tarbelli, the Bigerriones, the Ptianii, the Vocates, the Tarusates, the Elusates, the Gates, the Ausci, the Garumni, the Sibuzates (and) the Cocosates. A few very remote tribes, trusting in the time of year, because winter was at hand, neglected to do this.

CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE MORINI AND MENAPII (Chapters 28-29)

Chapter 28.

About the same time, Caesar, although the summer was nearly spent, yet because, the whole of Gaul having been pacified, the Morini and the Menapii remained of such a kind that they were in arms, nor had they ever sent ambassadors to him concerning peace, thinking that that war could be speedily completed, led his army thither; they began to conduct the war by a far different method from the rest of the Gauls. For, because they understood that the greatest tribes which had engaged in the war had been routed and overcome, and (because) they possessed continuous (lit. far stretching) forests and marshes, they conveyed themselves and all their property thither. When Caesar arrived and began to fortify his camp, and no enemy had been seen in the meantime, our men having been dispersed on their duties, they suddenly swooped out of all parts of the forest and made an attack on our men. Our men quickly took up their arms and drove them back into the forests, and many (of the enemy) having been killed, they lost a few of their own men pursuing too far, the ground (being) rather difficult.

Chapter 29.

On the remaining successive days, Caesar began to cut down the forests, and so that any attack could not be made on the flank, our soldiers (being) unarmed and unprepared, he placed fronting the enemy all that timber which had been cut down, and piled (it) up as a rampart on each flank. A great space having been cleared  with incredible speed in a few days, when the cattle and the rear of their baggage were sized by our men, and they themselves sought the thicker (parts of the) forests, storms of such a kind ensued, that the work was of necessity interrupted, and, owing to the continuation of the rains, our soldiers could not keep any longer in their tents (lit. under skins). So, all their fields having been ravaged (and) their villages and buildings having been burned, Caesar led his army back and placed (it) in winter quarters among the Aulerci and the Lexovii, (and) likewise the other states which had made war (upon him) recently.



APPENDIX:  INSTANCES OF CERTAIN GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS FAVOURED BY CAESAR:

A.  Ablative Absolutes: (117)

(See article entitled "Ablative Absolutes" on this blog, dated 20 May 2012.)

B.  Gerunds and Gerundives: (38)

(For a detailed analysis of the use of these in Latin literature, see the following articles on Sabidius blog: "Gerund and Gerundives", 6th March 2010; "Nunc est Bibendum", 17th January 2011; and "Gerunds and Gerundives: exemplification", 23rd January 2012.) In the list below each instance is shown first in Latin in italics, with the actual gerunds and gerundives underlined, and secondly in English. In the case of gerundives a more literal translation into English is followed by a colloquial  one which usually has the effect of transferring the voice of the action from passive to active, and, in the case of the gerundive denoting necessity, obligation or propriety, of introducing words such as 'should', 'ought' or 'must' into the translation.

Chapter 1: l.5:  causa (eius) mittendi :  1) lit. the reason for him being sent; 2) colloq. the reason for sending him. (Gerundive as attributive adjective qualifying a supplied pronoun in the objective genitive.) N.B. This can also be read as causa mittendi (eum) in which case mittendi would then be a gerund taking an object, an irregular but occasionally found construction (see Chapter 6 ll.2-3.)

Chapter 1: l.9:  hiemandi causa :  for the sake of taking up winter-quarters. (Gerund in the genitive case following causa to express purpose.)

Chapter 2:  ll.7-8:  belli renovandi legionisque opprimendae consilium :  1) lit. a plan for the war to be  renewed and the legion to be overwhelmed; 2) colloq. a plan for renewing the war and overwhelming the legion. (Two gerundives as attributive adjectives qualifying nouns in the objective genitive.)

Chapter 3:  l.5:  nihil de bello timendum (esse) existimaverat :  1) lit. he had thought that it was not in any way to be feared about warfare; 2) colloq. he had thought he ought to fear nothing about warfare. (Gerundive as predicative adjective used impersonally to express obligation.) N.B. This can also be read with timendum as an attributive adjective qualifying nihil.

Chapter 4:  l.2:  eis rebus quas constituissent collocandis atque administrandis :  1) lit. for those matters which they had decided to be arranged and carried out; 2) colloq. to arrange and carry out those matters which they had decided. (Two gerundives as attributive adjectives qualifying a noun in the dative.)

Chapter 4:  l.13:  (nulla facultas) ex pugna excedendi : no opportunity of departing from the battle. (Gerund as an objective genitive.)

Chapter 4:  l.14:  loci ubi constiterat relinquendi ac sui recipiendi (nulla) facultas: 1) lit. no opportunity of that place where he had been stationed being relinquished or of himself being withdrawn: 2) colloq. no opportunity of him leaving that place where he had been stationed or of withdrawing. (Two gerundives as attributive adjectives qualifying a noun and a pronoun respectively, both in the objective genitive.)

Chapter 6:  ll.2-3:  cognoscendi quid fieret ... (facultatem): the opportunity of learning what was happening. (Gerund as an objective genitive exceptionally taking a noun clause as object.)

Chapter 6:  ll.3:  neque sui colligendi ... facultatem: 1) lit. the opportunity of themselves being rallied; 2) colloq. the chance of rallying themselves. (Gerundive as an attributive adjective qualifying a pronoun in the objective genitive.)

Chapter 10:  l.1:  hae difficultates belli gerendi: 1) these difficulties in the war being waged; 2) colloq. these difficulties in the conduct of the war. (Gerundive as an attributive adjective qualifying a noun in the objective genitive.)

Chapter 10:  ll.11-12:  partiendum sibi ac latius distribuendum (esse) exercitum putavit:  1) lit. he thought that his army was needing to be divided and more widely distributed by him, 2) colloq. he thought that he ought to split up and disperse his army over a wider area. (Two gerundives as predicative adjectives expressing necessity.)

Chapter 11:  l.12:  qui eam manum distinendam curet:  1) lit. who was to cause that force to be kept apart (from the rest); 2) colloq. in order to see to it that the forces there were kept apart from the rest). (Gerundive of obligation as an attributive adjective used in the accusative case after certain verbs to express the purpose of an action.)

Chapter 13:  l.8:  ad quamvis vim et contumeliam perferendam: 1) lit. with the purpose of whatever violence and damage being endured; 2) colloq. so as to withstand any violence and damage that might occur. (Gerundive as an attributive adjective qualifying two nouns in the accusative following ad to express purpose.)

Chapter 13:  l.28:  quarum rerum omnium nostris navibus casus erat extimescendus: 1) lit. the risk of all these things was very greatly to be dreaded by our ships; 2) colloq. our ships had greatly to dread the risk of all these things. (Gerundive as a predicative adjective qualifying a noun in the nominative.)

Chapter 14:  l.4:  Caesar ... statuit classem exspectandam (esse): 1) Caesar decided that the fleet was needing to be awaited; 2) Caesar decided that he should wait for the fleet. (Gerundive as a predicative adjective expressing necessity.)

Chapter 15:  l.10:  ad negotium conficiendum: 1) lit. for the purpose of the business being completed; 2) colloq. for the completion of the business. (Gerundive as an attributive adjective qualifying a noun in the accusative following ad to express purpose.)

Chapter 16:  l.9:  eo gravius Caesar vindicandum (esse) statuit:  1) lit. Caesar decided that it was needing to be punished the more severely; 2) colloq. Caesar decided that punishment must be the more severe. (Gerundive as a predicative adjective used impersonally to express necessity.)

Chapter 17:  ll.11-12:  spes praedandi studiumque bellandi: the hope of plundering and eagerness for fighting. (Two gerunds as objective genitives.)

Chapter 17:  l.16:  pugnandi potestatem: an opportunity of fighting. (Gerund as an objective genitive.)

Chapter 17: ll.24-25:  dimicandum (esse) non existimabat:  1) lit. he did not think that it was right to be fought; 2) colloq. he did not think he should fight. (Gerundive as a predicative adjective used impersonally to express propriety.)

Chapter 18:  ll.11-12:  occasionem negoti bene gerendi:  1) lit. the opportunity of their enterprise being well conducted: 2) colloq. the chance to conduct their enterprise successfully. (Gerundive as an attributive adjective qualifying a noun in the objective genitive.)

Chapter 18:  ll.11-12:  occasionem ... amittendam non esse: 1) lit. that the opportunity was not properly to be lost; 2) colloq. that they ought not to lose the opportunity. (Gerundive as a predicative adjective to express propriety.)

Chapter 19:  ll. 3-4:  ad se colligendos armandosque: 1) lit. for the purpose of themselves being gathered and armed; 2) colloq. to assemble and arm themselves. (Two gerundives as attributive adjectives qualifying a pronoun in the accusative following ad to express purpose.)

Chapter 19:  l.18:  ad bella suspicienda: 1) lit. for the purpose of wars being undertaken; 2) colloq. to undertake wars. (Gerundive as an attributive adjective qualifying a noun in the accusative following ad to express purpose.)

Chapter 19:  l.20:  ad calamitates perferendas: 1) lit. for the purpose of disasters being endured; 2) colloq. to endure disasters. (Gerundive as an attributive adjective qualifying a noun in the accusative following ad to express purpose.)

Chapter 20:  ll 2-4:  quae pars ... ex tertia parte Galliae est aestimanda: 1) lit. which district is to be reckoned as a third part of Gaul; 2) colloq. a district which is considered as a third of the size of Gaul. (Gerundive as an attributive adjective qualifying a noun in the nominative.)

Chapter 20:  l.5:  sibi bellum gerendum (esse): 1) lit. that war was needing to be waged by him; 2) colloq. that he must conduct a war. (Gerundive as a predicative adjective to express necessity.)

Chapter 20:  ll.8-9:  non mediocrem sibi diligentiam adhibendam (esse): 1) lit. that no ordinary care was needing to be employed by him: 2) colloq. that he must employ special care. (Gerundive as a predicative adjective to express necessity.)

Chapter 23:  l.22:  non cunctandum (esse) existimavit:  1) lit. he thought it was not right to delay; 2) colloq. he thought he ought not to delay. (Gerundive as a predicative adjective used impersonally to express propriety.)

Chapter 24:  l.15:  alacrior ad pugnandum:  more eager to fight. (Gerund in the accusative following ad to express purpose.)

Chapter 25:  ll.4-5:  lapidibus telisque summinstrandis et ... caespitibus comportandis: 1) by stones and missiles being supplied and sods of turf being conveyed; 2) by supplying stones and by conveying sods of turf. (Two gerundives as attributive adjectives qualifying nouns in the instrumental ablative.)

C.  Impersonal passives: (12)

Each instance of the impersonal passive construction is shown first in Latin in italics, with the actual passive verb underlined, then in English firstly by a literal translation and secondly by either one or two colloquial ones. In practice, literal translations of impersonal passives involve the use of English which is almost impossibly convoluted.

Chapter 2:  l.20:  sibi persuasum habebant: 1) lit. they had (it) persuaded to themselves; 2) colloq. they were quite convinced.

Chapter 3:  l.10:  neque subsidio veniri (posset): 1) lit. neither could it be arrived at for a reinforcement; 2) colloq. neither could anyone come to reinforce (them).

Chapter 5:  l.1:  pugnaretur: 1) lit. it was being fought; 2a) colloq. there was fighting; 2b) colloq. the battle raged.

Chapter 15:  l.14:  pugnaretur: 1) lit. it was being fought; 2a) colloq. there was fighting; 2b) colloq. the battle lasted.

Chapter 18:  ll.12-13:  ad castra iri oportere: 1) lit. it was right for it to be gone to the camp; 2a) colloq. they ought to make a march on the camp; 2b) colloq. they should march on the camp.

Chapter 18: ll.15-16:  cui rei parum diligenter ab his erat provisum: 1) lit. for which thing it had too carefully been provided by them; 2a) colloq. for which thing provision had been made by them with insufficient care; 2b) colloq. for the provision of which they had not taken sufficient care.

Chapter 21:  l.1:  pugnatum est diu atque acriter: 1) lit. it was fought for a long time and fiercely; 2a) for a long time there was fierce fighting; 2b) colloq. the battle was long and fierce.

Chapter 22:  l.13:  vehementerque ibi pugnatum esset: 1) lit. and it had been fought there fiercely; 2a) colloq. and a fierce battle was fought there; 2b) colloq. and they fought a fierce battle there.

Chapter 23:  ll.4-5:  eo ventum erat:  1) lit. it had been arrived at thither; 2) their arrival there had occurred.

Chapter 24:  l.16:  exspectari diutius non oportere: 1) lit. that it was not right for it to be awaited any longer; 2) colloq. that they ought not to wait any longer.

Chapter 24:  l.17:  ad castra iretur: 1) lit. it should be gone to the camp; 2a) colloq. they should advance against the camp; 2b) colloq. a march should be made against the camp.

Chapter 25: l.7:  ab hostibus constanter non timide pugnaretur: 1) lit. it was being fought by the enemy resolutely and not timidly; 2) colloq. the enemy were fighting with resolve and courage.