LATIN VOCABULARY: NOTES

A.  DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERBS OF PLACE AND TIME:

                              PLACE:                                                                      TIME

WHERE:       ubi        where(?), in which place(?)                                   when, whenever
                      ibi         there, in that place                                                  then
                      illic       there, in that place
                      hic        here, in this place                                                   at this point

WHITHER:  quo       whither(?), to which place(?)
                      eo         thither, to that place                                               so long 
                      illuc      thither, to that place
                      huc       hither, to this place                                                so far

WHENCE:   unde      whence(?), from which place(?)                         
                     inde       from there, thenceforth, from that place              after that, ever since
                     illinc      thence, from that place
                     hinc       hence, from this place                                          after this


B.  CONFUSINGLY SIMILAR WORDS:

aer, aeris, m. air, atmosphere, weather;
aes, aeris, n. copper, bronze, brass, money.
aes alienum, debt

aestas, aestatis, f. summer;
aestus, aestus, m. heat, passion, surge of the sea;
aetas, aetatis, f. age, life, time, lifetime.

atqui, conj. yes but, and yet, nevertheless
atque, conj. and, and in fact, and then, and so.

cado, cadere, cecidi, casum. to fall, die, am killed, fail, subside, happen (events);
caedo, caedere, cecidi, caesum. to cut, slaughter, sacrifice, kill, strike;
cedo, cedere, cessi, cessum. to walk, depart, withdraw, retreat, die, yield, concede.

compello, compellare, compellavi, compellatum. to call, address, reproach, arraign;

compello, compellere, compuli, compulsum. to drive, bring together, impel, compel; concentrate;

consisto, consistere, constiti. to stand, stand firm, take up a position, endure;
constituo, constituere, constitui, constitutum. to put, place, set down, station, halt, determine;
consto, constare, constiti, constatum. to stand together, agree, remain constant.

contineo, continere, continui, continentum. to contain, keep together, confine, control, check.

continuo, continuare, continuavi, continuatum. to join together, continue without a break. 

fulgur, fulguris, n. lightning;
fulmen, fulminis, n. thunderbolt.

iaceo, iacere, iacui. to lie, lie ill, lie dead; (places) to be situated;
iacio,iacere, ieci, iactum. to throw, lay, build; (seed) to sow.
iacto, iactare, iactavi, iactatum. to throw, scatter, shake, toss about; (speech) to boast.

incedo, incedere, incessi, incessum. to walk, parade, march, advance, (feelings) come upon

incendo, incendere, incendi, incensum. to burn, set fire to, set alight, inflame, rouse, incense, brighten.

incido, incidere, incidi, incasum. to fall upon, meet, come across, befall, occur, happen.

incido, incidere, incidi, incisum. to cut open, cut up, engrave, inscribe, interrupt, cut short.

insisto, insistere, institi. to stand on, stand firm, halt, press on, pursue, begin, persist, continue

instituo, instituere, institui, institutum. to set up. implant, establish, build, appoint, arrange, teach 

insto, instare, institi. to stand on, pursue, approach, work hard at, insist, urge

lenis (long 'e'), soft, smooth, mild, gentle, calm

levis (short 'e'), adj. light, gentle, easy, trivial, fickle, nimble;
levis (long 'e'), adj. smooth, beardless, youthful, delicate.

nequaquam, adv. by no means, not at all;
nequiquam, adj. in vain, to no purpose, without good reason, fruitlessly, for nothing

onus, oneris, n. load, burden, weight, trouble, difficulty.
ops, opis, f. power, aid, help, assistance; plural (opes): wealth, riches, property, resources.
opus, operis, n. labour, work, toil, fortification, book of writing, need.

ora, orae, f. edge, border, boundary, sea-coast, country, region, ship's hawser;
os, oris, n. mouth, jaws, beak, tongue, lips, speech, face.
os, ossis, n. bone, marrow, heart, very soul.

parumper, adv. for a little while, for a time;
paulatim, adv. gradually, little by little;
paulisper, adv. for a little while.

pecu (pl. pecua), n. cattle, flock of sheep, plural: pastures, money;
pecus, pecoris, n. cattle, swine, sheep, flock, herd;
pecus, pecudis, f. a sheep, a head of cattle, a domestic animal.

praeterea, adv. besides, in addition, moreover, henceforth, further.
propterea, adv. therefore, on that account.

primitus, adv. originally.

primo, adv. at first, firstly.

primum, adv. first, in the first place, first of all, for the first time, to begin with.

resisto, resistere, restiti. to stop, halt, stand still, resist.

restito, restitare, restitavi, restitatum. to stay behind, hesitate.

restituo, restituere, restitui, restitutum. to replace, rebuild, restore, give back, return, reverse

resto, restare, restiti. to resist, stand firm, remain, be left. 

socer, soceri, m. father-in-law;

socrus, socrus, f. mother-in-law. 

somnium, somn(i)i, n. dream, fancy, imagination, nonsense;
somnus, somni, m. sleep, sleep (of death), slumber, drowsiness.

subsisto, subsistere, substiti. to stand still, halt, stop.

substituo, substituere, substitui, substitutum. to put next to, substitute, present, imagine.

substo, substare, substiti, substatum. to hold out, stand firm.

vero, adv. indeed, really, in truth;
verum, cj. but, but in truth, but still.

C.  OTHER USEFUL WORDS/ PHRASES:

ab latere           on the flank

absit a me         far be it from me

abunde              in profusion, more than enough, abundantly, amply, copiously

actum est de      it is all up with

adeo                  so, thus, in fact

ad extremum     at last, finally

adice                 add to this

ad hoc               for this purpose, besides,  moreover

ad irritum cadere  come to nothing

admodum          very, quite, fully

ad speciem        for the sake of appearances

ad tempora        on a temporary basis, for the moment, at the right time

ad ultimum        finally, in the end, ultimately, for the last time

ad unum            to a man, unanimously

adusque            right up to, eventually, entirely
ad verbum         word for word

ad voluntatem   with the consent (of)

aegre                 with difficulty, scarcely, hardly,  distressingly

aegre patior      to be displeased with

aes alienum       debt

ager                   land, field, countryside, territory

alias                  at another time, some other time, at other times 

alibi                  otherwise, elsewhere

alicubi              somewhere, in some place

alii alio             some in one place, some in another

alioqui              otherwise, besides

aliquamdiu       for sometime

aliquando         sometimes, now at last, at long last, for once
aliquanto          somewhat, rather

aliquotiens       several times

alius alii           from one to another

alterum tantum twice as much

ambitiose         ostentatiously, insolently

ante                  before that, until then, in the past
antiquitus        long ago, in ancient times

apud                beside, by, among, near, in the presence of, in the opinion of

autem               but, on the other hand, and yet, now, moreover

avare                greedily, avariciously, covetously, eagerly

bene quidem    very well
causa indicta   without a hearing

cavillans          jeeringly

certatim           eagerly, zealously, firmly, vied, emulously

ceterum           besides, otherwise, but for all that

cis                    on this side

cito                   quickly, soon

citra                 short of

comminus         hand to hand, at close quarters

confestim          immediately, shortly, suddenly, without delay, speedily, forthwith
consensu          unanimously

constanter        constantly, resolutely, steadily, firmly, consistently

consulto            deliberately, by design, on purpose
continuo           immediately, without delay, forthwith, directly
contumaciter    stubbornly, obstinately, with defiance

cordi sum         I please, I am agreeable to

cotidie             daily, on a daily basis, every day

crastino die      tomorrow

cum maxime     just as

cum primis        especially
cum primum     as soon as
cum ... tum        both ... and; not only ... but also
cursu                at a run, at the double

dedita opera     intentionally, deliberately, on purpose

dehinc               henceforth, then, next, from now on
deinceps            successively, in order, in succession, one after another
deinde               then, next, from there, thereafter
de improviso     unexpectedly

de industria      purposely, on purpose

de integro          afresh

de more             according to custom
demum              at last, just, precisely
denique             lastly, finally, in the end
denuo                again, once more, afresh

desuper             from above

diem dicere       to impeach          

diu                     for a long time, a long time ago

diutius               any longer

divinitus            from heaven, by a god, by divine inspiration/influence

domi militiaeque  at home and abroad

dummodo          provided that, so long as
dumtaxat           at least, only, merely

eadem               in the same way, at the same time

ea gratia           on this account

eiusmodi           such
eminus              at/from a distance

enimvero          certainly, for indeed
enixe                earnestly, strenuously, zealously

eo                     for that reason, on that account

eodem cursu    in the same direction

eo magis          all the more

eo plus             the more

eo quod           for the reason that 

eo ... unde        to the place ... from which

eo usque          so far, to such an extent

equidem           verily, truly, indeed, of course, at all events, for my part, to be sure

est apud se      they have

et                     and, both, also, even, too

etenim              but in fact, furthermore, and indeed
etiam               also, even, actually, besides

etiamnum         till now
etiamsi             even if, although
etiamtum          till then
etsi                   even if, and yet, though

e vestigio         instantly

exadversum     right opposite

ex alto              on the horizon

ex composito    as agreed, as planned

exim                 then, next

ex improviso    unexpectedly, all of a sudden

ex industria     on purpose, deliberately, diligently

ex insperato     unexpectedly

ex ordine          in order, in turn, one after the other

ex parte            partly, to some extent

ex quo              since

extemplo          immediately, at once, instantly, straightway, forthwith, without delay

ex transverso   sideways, from the side

extrinsecus      on the outside, from the outside

facile patior     to be well pleased with

fere                  usually, generally, almost, nearly, about, quite, just

ferme               almost

foras                out, outside, out of doors

forte                 by chance, happened

fortuito            by chance, fortuitously, haply

frustra             in vain, for nothing

funditus           completely, utterly, from the bottom

gratia + gen.   for the sake of, in order to

gratius             more pleasing, more agreeable

hactenus          thus far, so far, till now
haud aliter quam   just like, just as

haud gravatim not unwillingly

haud secus quam just as (lit. not otherwise than) 

haud scio an    I feel sure

hauddum         not yet

hesterno die    yesterday, on the previous day

hic                   the latter

hinc et inde     here and there, on both sides

iamdiu             long since
iamdudum       long ago, for a long time 
iamiam            right now, any moment now
iam nunc          just now
iampridem       long ago, for a long time
iam tum           even at that time
idem                likewise, also

identidem        repeatedly, again and again, often, continually, constantly, regularly 

ideo                 therefore, for this reason, that is why

ilico                 on the spot, in that very place, instantly, at once

illa                   that way, in that direction

ille                   the former

immo               no, on the contrary, or rather

immensum       exceedingly

improviso        unexpectedly

in cassum        in vain

in commune    for the common good, for a common end

indidem           from the same place

in dies              daily, everyday, on a daily basis, day by day

in incerto         in doubt

in loco             on the spot

in maius           too greatly, too highly, greater than it is, in an exaggerated fashion

in manibus       well-known, at hand, available

in medium        for the common good
in praesens      for the present 

in pretio           valuable 
in primis          especially

inferne             below

insuper            above, on top, besides, over and above, still further

in tantum         to such an extent

interdiu            by day, during the day, in the daytime

interdum          sometimes, now and then, occasionally

interea              meanwhile, in the meantime, nevertheless
interim             meanwhile, in the meantime, sometimes, someday, all the same 

inter haec        meanwhile

inter quae        meanwhile

inter se             mutually, one another
in vicem           each other, in turn, alternately, mutually

item                  likewise, also, besides, further, moreover, too, as well

itidem               in the same way, similarly, likewise

iure                   justly, rightly

iuxta                 alike, just the same, close by

licet                  although, even if
magis               more

magnis itineribus  by forced marches

magnopere      greatly, very much, exceedingly, particularly

mature             promptly, at the right time

maxime            most, especially, particularly, above all, very much

minime vero     certainly not
missum facio   I forgo

modo               only, at all, in any way, just now, a moment ago, if only
modo demum   only now
moleste            in an annoying manner

multo praestat it is much better

necdum            and ... not yet

nec mora         without delay, at once
necopinato      unexpectedly

neglegenter     carelessly, with neglect

ne quidem        not even

nihilo minus    none the less

nimirum           doubtless, undoubtedly, of course, certainly, surely

nimius              excessive

non cassum      in vain

non saltem       not even

nondum            not yet
non iam            no longer
nonnumquam   sometimes

non secus         even so

nulla parte       not at all

nunc quoque    even now
oboedienter     readily, duly

obviam ierat    had gone to meet

olim                 once, at times, sometime, one day
omnino            at all, altogether, entirely, utterly, undoubtedly, to be sure
omni parte       entirely

operae pretium worth while

ordine              properly, in an orderly manner, in good order

otiose               leisurely, idly, quietly

paene               nearly, almost

palam               openly, publicly

pariter              alike, equally, at the same time, together

parum               not very, too little, not enough, scarcely
passim              here and there, at random, indiscriminately, in every direction, far and wide

paulo                a little, somewhat

paulo ante        recently, a short time before

paulum             somewhat, slightly, a little

paulum modo   just a little

penes + acc.     in the power of, in the possession of, in the house of, in the hands of, with

penitus              deep within, from the depths, utterly, thoroughly
per ambages    in a roundabout way. in an equivocal manner

perinde             just as, in the same manner, equally
per omnia        by all means, in all respects

peropportune   very opportunely, in the nick of time

perperam         wrongly, falsely

per se               in itself

pessum dare     to put an end to, to ruin, to destroy

plerumque        generally, usually, mostly

pone                 behind

porro                next, in turn, moreover, long ago, in future, onward, forwards, a long way off

posthac             hereafter, in future, afterwards

postmodo          presently, shortly, soon after, a little later

postremo          finally, eventually, besides, at any rate

potissimum       especially, in particular

potius               rather, more, instead

praesens           in person 

praesertim        especially
praesto             at hand, ready, in readiness, there by your side

praeter             except, besides, beyond, in addition to, more than, contrary to

praeterea          besides, moreover, henceforth

praeterquam     except, other than, save, beyond, besides

pridem              long ago, long since, a long time ago

prima luce        at dawn, at daybreak, at first light

primis               in the first place

primo                at first
primitus            originally, in the first place, first of all

primum             firstly, in the first place, first of all, to begin with
probe                well, properly, thoroughly

procul               from afar, far away, at a distance, in the distance

profecto            really, certainly, surely, truly, actually, indeed
proin(de)          consequently, therefore, just as
propalam         openly, publicly, manifestly

pro parte          to the best of one's ability

propediem        shortly, before long, very soon, prematurely

propterea          therefore
prorsus             forwards, absolutely, quite, in short

pro contione     publicly, in public

pro se               on his own behalf

pro tempore      to suit the occasion, as the circumstances permitted

protinus            forthwith, right away, at once, immediately, continuously
publice              for the state, by the state, at the public expense, all together

qua ... qua         partly ... partly

quamdiu            as long as

quamobrem       why, wherefore, for what reason
quam primum   as soon as possible

quamquam        although, and yet

quandoque        whenever, someday, eventually, seeing that 

quandoquidem  seeing that, since, for

quapropter         and therefore

quatenus            since, in so far as, as far as

quemadmodum  just as
quidem               in fact, indeed, at any rate, it is true
quid sibi vult?    what does he mean? what is he driving at? what is the point?

quippe                certainly, of course, for in fact
quispiam            some one

quisquam           anyone

quisque              each, every, everyone

quisquis             whoever, whatever

quocirca            therefore, for this reason

quodsi                but if, whereas if
quomodo           how

quondam           once, formerly, long ago, sometimes, at that time
quotidie             daily

quotie(n)s          how often

quotus quisque? how few?

reapse                in fact, actually, in reality, really, in truth

recte                  rightly, properly, correctly

rem deferre       to adjourn

res repeto          I demand satisfaction, I seek restitution

retro                  back, backwards, behind

robigo                rust, blight, mould, mildew

saepe                 often, frequently

saepenumero     very often, on many occasions

saltem                at least, at all events
sane                   indeed, doubtless, to be sure, of course, certainly, surely, if you please

satin                  quite, really

satis                   enough, sufficiently, tolerably, quite

satis facio          I satisfy, I make amends, I pay

satisne               quite, really

satius                 better, preferable

secus                 otherwise, differently, badly

sed enim            but in fact, but actually
seditose            seditiously, in a rebellious manner

sedulo               deliberately, on purpose

segniter            slowly, lazily, slothfully

se habere          to find oneself, to  be

sensim               gradually, slowly, tentatively, little by little

separatim         apart, separately, on an individual basis

sero                   late, too late

sic quoque         even so
sicuti                 just as if

signa conferre   to join battle

signo dato         at a given signal

sine fraude        without harm
si quando          whenever, if ever

siquidem            if only
specialiter         particularly, specially, specifically

sua sponte         of its own accord, spontaneously, by oneself, unaided

summatim         summarily, cursorily, briefly, in short 

subinde              repeatedly, immediately after, forthwith, thereupon

superne              from above, at the top

susque deque     up and down, neither here nor there, of no consequence

tacite                  silently, secretly

talis                    such, the following

talis ... qualis     such as 

tam                     so, so much, so very

tamen                 however, nevertheless, yet, but, all the same

tamdiu                so long, as long

tametsi               although

tamquam            just as, just like

tam ... quam       as ... as

tandem               at last, at length, finally

tanti esse           to be worth so much, to be so important, to be worth having

tantisper            meanwhile, in the meantime, for so long as

tanto opere        so much

tantum               so, so much, only, merely

tantummodo      only
tantum non        all but, almost

tantum ... quantum  as much as

tantus                so big

tantus ... quantus  as big as

temere               rashly, at random, without design, casually, thoughtlessly

terga vertere     to turn to flight (lit. to turn their backs)

tot                     so many

totie(n)s             as often, so often

toties ... quoties as often as 

tot ... quot          as many as

tria tanta           three times as much

trifarium           on three sides, in three places

tum cum            at the time when
tum demum       only then
tunc                   then, at that time, next

turbide              in disorder, in a disorderly manner

turpiter             shamefully, in a shameful manner

ubi primum        as soon as
ultra                   beyond, farther, deeper

ultro                   of one's own accord, unasked, voluntarily, unsolicited

ultro citroque     to and fro, hither and thither, this way and that, in one way or another

una secum          together with him

uno tenore          without a break, uniformly

unusquisque       every single one of us 

uspiam               anywhere, somewhere, in some place

usque                 continuously

usque ad            right up to, all the way to as far as, leading to

usque adeo        so much, to such an extent

usquequaque      everywhere, on every occasion

utcumque           one way or another

ut fit                   as usually happens

utique                 especially, at any rate, by all means, surely, still, completely, certainly

ut primum          as soon as
utraque              and on the other side

utrimque            on both sides, on either side

venit usu            it happens

veri similis         probable, likely

vero                    indeed
versus                 turned towards, in the direction of, facing

verum                 but
verumtamen       but yet, nevertheless, however
vicatim               from street to street, in villages

vicissim              in turn, again

videlicet             clearly, evidently, obviously, namely 

viritim                invidually, on an individual basis, separately, to each man, man by man

vixdum               hardly, as yet

vulgo                  publicly, commonly, everywhere





          

IMPARASYLLABIC NOUNS OF THE OF THE THIRD DECLENSION AND EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULES FOR THE QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES IN LATIN

Imparasyllabic nouns are those which have one more syllable in their Genitive Singulars than in their Nominative Singulars. The majority of such nouns are in the Third Declension, and within this declension there are two groups, or categories, of nouns (and related adjectives) which are of significance in relation to the length of syllables at the end of words, i.e. final syllables: 

1) Imparasyllabic Third Declension nouns with nominative Singulars ending in '- es', which have a short penultimate syllable in the Genitive Singular. In almost all Latin words ending in '- es', that syllable is pronounced long. However, in the case of this group of nouns, the final '- es' is short. Such nouns, and related adjectives, are listed below:  

ales, alitis.  c. bird, omen.  adj. winged, swift.  

caeles, caelitis.  adj. celestial. m.pl. the gods.

caespes, caespitis. m. sod, turf, mass of  roots

comes, comitis.  c. companion, partner, attendant, follower

dives, divitis.  adj. rich, wealthy, plentiful.

eques, equitis.  m. horseman, cavalryman, knight. 

gurges, gurgitis. m. deep water, abyss, flood, spendthrift.

hebes, hebetis. adj. blunt, dull, sluggish, stupid.

hospes, hospitis.  m. host, guest, stranger, foreigner.

limes, limitis. m. path, boundary, track, way, frontier

merges, mergitis.  f. sheaf (of corn).

miles, militis.  m. soldier. 

mollipes, mollipedis.  adj. soft-footed.

obses, obsidis.  f. hostage, guarantee.

palmes, palmitis.  m. branch, vine-shoot

pedes, peditis.  m. foot-soldier, infantryman.

poples, poplitis. m. knee, ham, hough.

praepes, praepetis.  f. bird.  adj. swift, winged, of good omen.

praeses, praesidis.  m. guardian, president, chief.  adj. presiding, protecting.

praestes, praestitis.  m. protector, guardian.  adj. protecting.

reses, residis.  adj. lazy, inactive.

satelles, satellitis. c. attendant, follower, courtier, life-guard, accomplice.

seges, segetis. f. cornfield, crop.

sospes, sospitis.  m. saviour, preserver, deliverer.  adj. safe, unhurt, favourable. 

stipes, stipitis.  m. log, tree, stump, trunk of a tree.

superstes, superstitis.  c. by-stander, witness, survivor.  adj. standing by, surviving, remaining.  

teges, tegetis. f. mat.

teres, teretis.  adj. rounded, smooth, polished, elegant. 

termes, termitis. m. branch.

trames, tramitis. m. footpath, path, by-way.

veles, velitis. m. light-armed soldier, skirmisher.

(N.B. In the case of all these above words, I suspect that, when we read them in prose, we often err by pronouncing the final '-es' syllable long. At the same time, I fear we also pronounce the final 's' like a 'z', as in English 'rose'. In Latin, however, 's' is always pronounced with a hissing sound, as in English 'sit'. So, for instance, 'comes' should always be pronounced 'commess', not 'commeyz'.) 

In the case of this group of Third Declension words, there are, inevitably perhaps, some exceptions to the exceptions. In the case of the following words which end in '- ies', their Nominative Singulars end in a long syllable, even though the penultimate syllables of their Genitive Singulars are pronounced short:

abies, abietis.  f. fir-tree, ship, spear, writing-tablet.

aries, arietis.  m. ram, battering-ram.

paries, parietis.  m. wall of a building. 

Another anomaly is the monosyllabic noun pes, pedis. m. foot, and its adjectival derivatives, bipes, bipedis; tripes, tripedis; and quadrupes, quadrupedis. Although these are imparasyllabic and have Genitive Singulars with a short penultimate syllable, the Nominative Singular of pes, and the final syllable of the Nominative Singulars of its derivatives are pronounced long, unlike the final syllable of the Nominative Singulars of mollipes and pedes (listed above), which are pronounced short - very confusing!

Further anomalies are heres, heredis. c. heir, heiress; and lebes, lebetis. m. copper basin, cauldron. Although both of these words are imparasyllabic, and the final syllables of their Nominative Singulars are short (N.B. a number of Latin dictionaries err in showing them as long), the penultimate syllable of their Genitive Singulars is long in both cases. However, while these two words share that characteristic, they differ in that the initial syllable of heres is long and that of lebes short.

2) Imparasyllabic Third Declension Nouns with Nominative Singulars ending in '- us', which have a long penultimate syllable in the Genitive Singular. In almost all Latin words ending in '-us', this syllable is pronounced short. However, in the case of this second group of nouns, the final '- us' is pronounced long. Such nouns are listed below:

crus, cruris. n. leg, shin.

incus, incudis.  f. anvil.

iuventus, iuventutis.  f. youth, manhood, men, soldiers.

palus, paludis.  f. marsh, pool, lake.

rus, ruris.  n. country, countryside, farm, estate.

salus, salutis. f. safety, health.

senectus, senectutis. old age, old men.

servitus, servitutis. f. slavery, service.

tellus, telluris.  f. earth, ground, land, country.

tus, turis.  n. incense, frankincense, spice.

virtus, virtutis.  f. virtue, courage, valour, manhood, strength, prowess.

Conclusion.  These two groups of Third Declension words are almost geometrically opposed to each other in terms of their characteristics and significance. The first group has Nominative Singulars which are pronounced short, and the second group has Nominative Singulars which are pronounced long. In the first group the penultimate syllable of the Genitive Singular is short; in the second group it is long. The first group has the effect of shortening an ending ('- es') which is otherwise almost always pronounced long, and the second group has the effect of lengthening an ending ('-us') which is otherwise almost always pronounced short. In both cases, however, it is particularly necessary to remember these details when scanning verse. 

READING VIRGIL'S LATIN VERSE

For any student of Latin literature who wishes to appreciate just why Romans found the poetry of Virgil so exhilarating and stimulating, it is absolutely essential to read his poetry in the original language. To seek to translate Virgil's work without attempting to read the verse condemns the learner to a mere academic exercise, dominated by the disciplines of accidence and syntax, important as they are, but in which the inspiration of the Muse is entirely lacking; but once one has learned to scan the lines and then to read them aloud, the magnificent rhythms of Virgil's poetry come alive, and carry the reader along to progressive crescendos of excitement and emotion. In addition to his mastery of poetic rhythm, Virgil is also adept at the use of onomatopoeia and alliteration, both to reinforce the meaning of his poetry, and to evoke associated moods of melancholy, gloom and horror on the one hand, and martial valour and patriotic splendour on the other, as well as of tenderness and pathos, often in the case of deathbed or funeral scenes. He also makes liberal use of the imagery of nature in similes which graphically describe the actions of the crops, the sea, the winds, the birds, the skies, and the divine powers which inspire them. To read Virgil's poetry is indeed an aesthetic delight.

But how should Virgil's poetry actually be read? We are told that by the First Century B.C.E. when Virgil wrote, Roman poets, in imitation of the Greeks, wrote 'quantitative' poetry, which consisted of the delineation or recurrence of long and short syllables in furtherance of various metrical forms. If one listens to the remarkable on-line readings of Robert Sankovsky, it would seem that the rhythms of classical Latin poetry were very different indeed from our English verse with its emphasis on stress accents. However, quantitative verse, if it really did sound like Sankovsky's renderings, is too alien for the modern ear, and would surely become unduly monotonous if declaimed for any length of time. Furthermore, some scholars have questioned the extent to which Latin poetry really did suppress the verse beat, or 'ictus', and the natural accentuation of syllables within words. Indeed, it can be argued that much of the fascination of Virgil's poetry arises from his skilful handling of beat and the stress accent of words, and that this adds to the variety of rhythms within his lines, which we consider below. In practice, therefore, it does seem appropriate to allow such accentuation to be emphasised when reading Virgil's work, while at the same time remembering that a long or heavy syllable took twice as long to read as a short or light one. 

Beneath the apparent rhythmic congruence of Virgil's hexameter lines, there is, in fact, a remarkable degree of variation, which was essential if monotony was to be avoided; this variety affected both the metrical structure of the lines themselves, and the points within them when pauses were effected. Both these areas are now considered below. (In this analysis a long syllable is shown as '--' and a short syllable as 'u').

Variation of metrical structure. In hexameters there is an almost total degree of uniformity in the structure of the last two feet of the six-foot line. The fifth foot is almost invariably a dactyl (i.e. -- uu), other than very rare exceptions when some special effect is sought, and the sixth foot is always a spondee (i.e. -- --) or a trochee (i.e. -- u), since the final syllable of all Latin verse metres is 'anceps', i.e. long or short. Whether the last syllable is long or short, however, the sixth foot was generally regarded as a spondee, by the device of 'brevis in longo', and it will be classified as a spondee in the analysis below. Despite the remarkable uniformity of the last two feet, it is, however, permissible in the case of the first four feet for the 'thesis' or the 'biceps' element of any of the dactyls (i.e. uu), to be 'contracted' into  a long syllable (i.e. --) and thus to form a spondee. In practice, therefore, there is a possible variety of 16 different syllable combinations for each hexameter line, and the number of syllables in a line can vary between 17 and 13; the metrical structure of these lines is set out below:

A.1: -- uu; -- uu; -- uu; -- uu; -- uu; -- -- (5 dactyls, 1 spondee) = 17 syllables.

A. 2: -- uu; -- uu; - uu; -- --; -- uu; -- -- (4 dactyls, 2 spondees) = 16 syllables.

A. 3: -- uu; --uu; -- --; -- uu; -- uu; -- -- (4 dactyls, 2 spondees) = 16 syllables.

A. 4: -- uu; -- uu; -- --; -- --; -- uu; -- -- (3 dactyls, 3 spondees) = 15 syllables.

B. 1: -- uu; -- --; -- uu; -- uu; -- uu;  -- -- (4 dactyls, 2 spondees) = 16 syllables.

B. 2: -- uu; -- --; -- uu; -- --; -- uu; -- -- (3 dactyls, 3 spondees) = 15 syllables.

B. 3: -- uu; -- --; -- --; -- uu; -- uu; -- -- (3 dactyls, 3 spondees) = 15 syllables.

B. 4: -- uu; -- --; -- --; -- --; -- uu; -- -- (2 dactyls, 4 spondees) = 14 syllables.

C. 1: -- --; -- uu; -- uu; -- uu; -- uu; -- -- (4 dactyls, 2 spondees) = 16 syllables.

C. 2: -- --; -- uu; -- uu; -- --; -- uu; -- -- (3 dactyls, 3 spondees) = 15 syllables.

C. 3: -- --; -- uu; -- --; -- uu; -- uu; -- -- (3 dactyls, 3 spondees) = 15 syllables.

C. 4: -- --; -- uu -- --; -- --; -- uu; -- -- (2 dactyls, 4 spondees) = 14 syllables.

D. 1: -- --; -- --; -- uu; -- uu; -- uu; -- -- (3 dactyls, 3 spondees) = 15 syllables.

D. 2: -- --; -- --; -- uu; -- --; -- uu; -- -- (2 dactyls, 4 spondees) = 14 syllables.

D. 3: -- --; -- --; -- --; -- uu; -- uu; -- -- (2 dactyls, 4 spondees) = 14 syllables.

D. 4: -- --; -- --; -- --; -- --; -- uu; -- -- (1 dactyl, 5 spondees) = 13 syllables. 

Variation in pauses. When it comes to pauses within lines - the word 'caesurae' actually means 'cuts', but this is too strong a word -, there are basically two types of main or principal caesura: 1) the penthemimiral caesura, i.e. caesura in the middle of the third foot (n.b. a penthemimer is a metrical unit of five half- feet); and 2) the hepththemimiral caesura, i.e. a caesura in the middle of the fourth foot, usually acting in combination with a trihemimiral caesura, in the middle of the second foot, which, when taken together, have the effect of separating the line into three parts. In this article a main caesura is marked 'X'. In Latin verse there was a strong preference for a strong, or masculine, caesura, i.e. one that comes after the first (always long) syllable, or the 'arsis', of the foot, as opposed to a weak, or feminine, caesura, which comes between the two short syllables which divide the 'thesis' of a dactyl. The location of the main caesura can be illustrated as follows in relation to these two types of caesura (for the purposes of these examples a hexameter line B. 2 is used:

1) -- uu| -- uu| --Xuu| -- uu| -- uu| -- --

2) -- uu| --Xuu| -- uu| --Xuu| --uu| -- --

In some instances it is possible for the reader to chose one or other of the above types of pause. Some will try to apply a penthemimiral caesura wherever possible, and avoid the two pause effect of the trihemimiral/ hepththemimiral caesurae, ignoring, in the process, the presence of commas or semi-colons in the relevant feet, designed by editors to guide the reader. However, where such punctuation marks exist, and/or the application of a pause in the third foot would involve a weak caesura, it is surely preferable to adopt the second/ fourth foot pause approach, and the relatively frequent incidence of such lines almost certainly reflects Virgil's recognition of the need for rhythmic variation. Sometimes a genuine choice remains, and in such circumstances the reader should decide which caesural system to adopt on the basis of perceived sound effect or in respect of natural breaks in meaning.

In order to illustrate how these variations in meter and pause were applied by Virgil, a short extract of 22 lines (ll. 295-316) is taken from Book VI of the "Aeneid", which contains the celebrated account of Aeneas' visit to the Underworld in the company of the Cumaean Sybil. This passage gives us a picture of what the Romans imagined would happen to the soul after death; it evokes an atmosphere of sadness and gloom, in which the main focus is the terrible figure of Charon, the ferryman of the dead across the River Styx. In this passage Virgil employs 11 of the 16 varieties of hexameter line available to him, and there is a 15:7 split of lines with penthemimiral and trihemimiral/ hepththemimiral caesurae. As set out below, the long or heavy syllables are underlined, divisions between feet are marked by '|' and the main caesura is shown by an 'X'. Where two or more long syllables, contiguous within the same word, form a spondee, they are separated by a hyphen. At the beginning of each line, the type of hexameter line is indicated in brackets:


l. 295 (A. 3):  Hinc via | Tartare|i X quae | fert Ache|rontis ad | un-das.

l. 296 (B. 3):  Turbidus | hic  cae|no X vas|taque vo|ragine | gur-ges.

l. 297 (B. 4):  aestuat | atqu(e) om|-nem X Co|-cyt(o) e|-ructat ha|re-nam.

l. 298 (B. 2):  Portitor | has X hor|rendus a|quas X et | flumina | ser-vat

l. 299 (B. 2):  terribi|li X squa|lore Cha|ron: X cui | plurima | men-to

l. 300 (B. 2):  caniti|es X inculta iacet; X stant | lumina flamma,

l. 301 (A. 4):  sordidus | ex umeris X no|-do de|-pendet a|mic-tus.

l. 302 (B. 2):  Ipse ra|tem X con|-to subi|git, X ve|-lisque mi|nis-trat,

l. 303 (C. 4):  et fer|-rugine|a X sub|-vec-tat | corpora | cum-ba,

l. 304 (B. 1):  iam seni|or; X sed | cruda de|o X viri|disque se|nec-tus.

l. 305 (D. 4):  Huc om|-nis X tur|-b(a) ad ri|-pas X ef|-fusa rue|-bat,

l. 306 (C. 3):  mat-res | atque vi|ri, X de|-functaque | corpora | vi-ta

l. 307 (B. 2):  magnani|m(um) he-ro|-um, X pue|r(i) in-nup-taeque pu|el-lae,

l. 308 (A. 2):  imposi|tique ro|gis X iuve|nes an-t(e) ora parentum:

l. 309 (D. 4):  quam mul|-t(a) in sil|-vis au|-tum-ni | frigore | pri-mo.

l. 310 (A. 4):  lapsa ca|dunt foli|(a), aut X ad | ter-ram | gurgit(e) ab | al-to

l. 311 (C. 1):  quam mul|-tae X glome|rantur a|ves, X ubi | frigidus |an-nus

l. 312 (C. 4):  trans pon|-tum fugat | et X ter|-ris im|-mittit a|pri-cis.

l. 313 (D. 4):  Sta-bant o-ran-tes X pri-mi trans-mittere cur-sum,

l. 314 (C. 4):  ten-de|-bantque ma|nus X ri|-p(ae) ulteri|oris a|mo-re.

l. 315 (B. 4):  Navita | sed tris|-tis X nunc | hos nunc | accipit | il-los,

l. 316 (B. 4):  ast ali|os lon|-ge X sum|-mo-tos | arcet ha|re-na.


With regard to pauses within the lines, it will be noted that approximately two-thirds of the above lines have a strong main caesura in the third foot, and a third have two strong caesurae in the second and fourth feet; of these latter, of which there are 7, the possibility of a pause in the third foot is vitiated in ll. 298, 300, 304 and 311 by the need to employ a weak caesura as the main break, while in ll. 299, 300, 302, 304 and 311 the punctuation marks point clearly to the double break. Finally, a third foot break in l. 305 would require a main caesura to be inserted in the middle of the adverbial phrase 'ad ripas', something evidently unacceptable. However, there remains a genuine choice in ll. 312 and 315. While a third foot pause seems marginally preferable in these two cases on grounds of sound, strong caesurae are available in both the second and fourth feet to permit a combination of trihemimiral and penththemimiral caesurae in both lines.

Bucolic diaeresis. It should also be noted that Virgil had a distinct partiality for the 'Bucolic diaeresis'. A 'diaeresis' is the name given to a break where the end of a word and the end of a foot coincide. This was not generally considered to be particularly desirable if it happened too frequently, but in the case of the division between the fourth and the fifth feet it was considered good practice. Such breaks were called 'Bucolic' because they had been used by the Greek pastoral poet Theocritos in his poems about herdsmen, οἱ βουκόλοι. In the above passage Bucolic diaereses are marked with a red line between the fourth and the fifth feet, and they occur in 10 of the 22 lines. In poetic terms their main rhythmic effect is to strengthen the 'shave and a haircut' or 'blackberry pudding' sound of the last two feet.

Coincidence of word accent and 'ictus'. Another source of rhythmic variety in Virgil's poetry arises from the potential clash between natural the stress-accent of Latin words and the beat or 'ictus' of quantitative verse. With regard to the stress-accent of Latin words, this falls on the first syllable of words of two syllables, on the last syllable but one of words of more than two syllables, if that syllable is long, but on the last syllable but two if the last syllable but one is short. In quantitative verse, however, the verse accent or beat falls on the first (long) syllable of each foot, whether it is a dactyl or a spondee. In hexameter verse it is very common for the word accent and verse accent to coincide in the first foot, and in the final two feet they always do so; but in the middle feet, i.e. feet two, three, and four, they rarely coincide. In his poetry Virgil generally follows these expectations, which were necessary to avoid monotony or the development of a 'sing-songy' rhythm, and his careful management of this conflict is one of the reasons for the rhythmic beauty of his poetry. With regard to the coincidence of word accent and beat, these 22 lines show the following position:

Foot 1: All lines except 299, 300, 308, 314 (n.b. the first word in these lines is more than 3 syllables.)
Foot 2: ll. 297, (301), 306, 308, (309), 314, (315).
Foot 3: ll. 298, 299, 304, (305), (310), 311, (312).
Foot 4: 296, 297, 303, 306, 316.
Foot 5: All lines.
Foot 6: All lines.
(The brackets relate to monosyllables, on which word stress is optional and relates to the degree of emphasis that is desired.)

Models for the reading of lines. To assist the reader of hexameter verse it is very difficult to find English poems written in hexameters, against which one can model one's rendering of Virgil's Latin verse. However, Henry Longfellow's poem "Evangeline", can be used in this way with profit, particularly the earlier lines. The poem itself, while undoubtedly a poetic tour de force is difficult to recommend, as the story it tells is desperately sad and the hexameter rhythm does indeed become somewhat monotonous, despite Longfellow's manifold efforts to avoid that. Nevertheless, some of its lines, particularly at the beginning of the poem have a sort of sonorous beauty which is compelling, and they can be used as a model against which each of the 16 types of hexameter line can be measured. In the case of ll. 295-316 of "Aeneid" Book VI, a similar sounding line from "Evangeline" is identified below for each of the 11 types of line which the extract contains (n.b. long syllables are underlined, and the relevant line of "Evangeline" is shown in brackets at the end of each line. Where one English word contains a spondee, the two syllables are hyphenated):

A. 2.  White as the snow were his locks, and his cheeks brown as the oak-leaves. (l. 64)

A. 3.  Gentle Evangeline lived, his child and the pride of the vill-age. (l. 61)

A. 4.  Sweet was her breath as the breath of kine that feed in the mead-ows. (l. 68)

B. 1.  Down the long street she passed, with her chaplet of beads and her mis-sal. (l. 74)         
B. 2.  Scattered like dust and leaves, when the migh-ty blasts of Octo-ber (l. 13)         

B. 3.  Hearty and hale was he, an oak that is covered with snow flakes; (l. 63)

B. 4.  Columns of pale blue smoke, like clouds of incense ascen-ding, (l. 50)

C. 1.  Naught but tradition remains of the beautiful village of Grand-Pre (l. 15)

C. 3.  Fair was she to behold, that maiden of seventeen sum-mers. (l. 65)

C. 4.  West and south there were fields of flax, and orchards and corn-fields.(l. 27)

D. 4.  Stand like Druids of eld, with voices sad and prophe-tic. (l. 3)

(N.B. In a number of cases Longfellow uses trochees in place of spondees; this is necessitated by the relative shortage of long syllables in English, e.g. ''breath of kine that" in l. 68 above. These are really two trochees, not spondees. When reading such trochees, however, if one 'dwells' on the shorter syllables "of" and "that", the spondaic effect can, to some extent, be maintained.)

Conclusion. It is hoped that the reader will find his reading of the lines of this extract in Latin will benefit from the rhythmic modelling provided by Longfellow's lines. However, it remains important when reading quantitative verse to dwell sufficiently on long or heavy syllables, something which can be done while allowing the deployment of the verse beat which is natural to an English reader. The extract upon which this article has focused, in order to illustrate the various ways in which Virgil was able to exercise rhythmic variety, contains a greater proportion of spondees than are usually found. These spondees reflect the gloomy atmosphere which Vigil was seeking to engender at this point in the narrative, and any reading of this extract should reflect this mood.

THE LENGTHENING OF SHORT FINAL SYLLABLES IN VIRGIL

On occasions, Virgil permits himself a certain licence in his metrication, when he lengthens syllables at the end of words which would normally be short both by nature and by position. Ancient authorities commentating on these irregularities explain them either by focusing on their position in the verse, or by suggesting that Virgil's usage in these instances reflects that these syllables had been long in quantity in earlier periods of Latin poetry. With regard to the first of these tentative explanations, it is indeed the case that in all the instances where Virgil permits himself this licence, the syllables which are lengthened in this way are in arsis, that is, they fall on the last syllable of words which occur in the first part of the foot, and therefore coincide with the ictus, or the metrical beat. 

45 instances of this irregular lengthening of short final syllables are found in Virgil's works. These are divided below into certain groupings, most of which reflect different parts of speech or letter endings. In each case the whole verse is shown, and the affected syllable is underlined.

A.  Lengthening of the first 'que' at the beginning of verses: 

i)  Eurique Zephyrique tonat domus: omnia plenis. (Georgics I. l.371)

ii)  liminaque laurusque dei, totusque moveri. (Aeneid III. l.91)

B.  Lengthening of a syllable immediately before a Greek word:

i)  ille, latus niveum molli fultus hyacintho, (Eclogues 6. l.53)

ii)  Graius homo, infectos linquens profugus hymenaeos. (A. X. l.720)

(See also E. iii. b. and F. iii. below)

C.  Lengthening of final syllables ending in 'r': 

i)  Nouns: Masculines ending in 'or', 'er', or 'ur':

a)  Omnia vincit Amor; et nos cedamus Amori. (E. 10. l.69)

b)  Aequus uterque labor, aeque iuvenemque magistri (G. III. l.118)

c)  nam duo sunt genera: hic melior, insignis et ore (G. IV. 92)

d)  luctus, ubique pavor, et plurima mortis imago. (A. II. l.369)

e)  et Capys, et Numitor, et qui te nomine reddet (A. VI. l.768)

f)  considant, si tantus amor, et moenia condant (A. XI. l.323)

g)  quippe dolor, omnis stetit imo vulnere sanguis. (A. XII. l.422)

h)  et Messapus equum domitor, et fortis Asilas (A. XII. l.550)

i)  Desine plura, puer, et quod nunc instat agamus:(E. 9. l.66)

j)  ostentans artemque pater arcumque sonantem. (A. V. l.521)

k)  congredior. Fer sacra, pater, et concipe foedus. (A. XII. l.13)

l)  si qui ebur, aut mixta rubent ubi lilia multa (A. XII. l.68)

ii) Inflections of Verbs ending in 'r':

a)  altius ingreditur et mollia crura reponit; (G. III. l.76)

b)  Tum sic Mercurium adloquitur, ac talia mandat: (A. IV. l.222)

c)  Olli serva datur, operum haud ignara Minervae, (A. V. l.284)

d)  nostrorum obruimur, oriturque miserrima caedes (A. II. l.411)

D.  Lengthening of final syllables ending in 's'.

i)  Nouns: 

a)  per terram, et versa pulvis inscribitur hasta. (A. I. l.478)

b)  invalidus, etiamque tremens, etiam inscius aevi. (G. III. l.189)

c)  Non te nullius exercent numinis irae; (G. IV. l.453)

d)  Emicat Euryalus, et munere victor amici (A. V. l.337)

e)  fatalesque manus, infensa Etruria Turno: (A. XII. l.232)

f)  sicula magna Iovis, antiquo robore quercus (G. III. l.332)

g)  pectoribus inhians spirantia consulit exta. (A. IV. l.64)

ii)  Verbs: 

a)  terga fatigamus hasta; nec tarda senectus (A. IX. l.610)

E.  Words ending in 't': Third Person Singular of Verbs: 

i)  Imperfect Indicative Active (-at):

a) Tityrus hunc aberat. Ipsae te, Tityre, pinus, (E. 1. l.39)

b)  nusquam amittebat, oculosque sub astra tenebat. (A. V. l.853)

c)  regibus omen erat, hoc illis curia templum, (A. VII. l.174)

d)  per mediam qua spina dabat, hastamque receptat (A. X. l.383)

e)  Hic hasta Aeneae stabat, huc impetus illam (A. XII. l.772) 

ii)  Present Indicative Active and Imperfect Subjunctive Active (-et):

a)  qui teneant, nam inculta videt, hominesque feraene, (A. I. l.308)

b)  Pergama cum peteret inconcessosque hymenaeos, (A. I. l.651) 

iii)  Present, Future, and Perfect Indicative Active (-it):

a)  versibus ille facit; aut, si non possumus omnes, (E. 7. l.23)

b)  sceptra Palatini sedemque petit Evandri. (A. IX. l.9)

c)  tela manusque sinit. Hinc Pallas instat et urget, (A. X. l.433)

d)  ipse, ubi tempus erit, omnes in fonte lavabo. (E. 3. l.97)

e)  te sine, frater, erit? O quae satis ima dehiscat (A. 12. l.883)

f)  at rudis enituit impulso vomere campus. (G. II. l.211)

g)  Alcides subiit, haec illum regia cepit. (A. VIII. l.363)

F.  Stand alone instances. The following exceptional instances of the lengthening of the final syllable of a word are also found: 

i)  pingue super oleum fundens ardentibus extis. (A. VI. l.254)

ii)  cum muros arcemque procul ac rara domorum (A. VIII. l.98)  

iii)  nam tibi, Thymbre, caput Evandrius abstitit ensis; (A. X. l.394).

Conclusion. It can be seen clearly from the above instances that Virgil never allows himself the licence to lengthen a vowel that would normally be short unless the word concerned is in arsis, and, indeed, seldom where the lengthened syllable is not immediately followed by a main caesura, i.e. a slight break in the line. Of the above instances, it is only in 7 cases that the lengthened syllable is not followed by the main caesura. These are the first four, where it could not be applicable in any case; and D. i. g; E. i. b, and F. i. So in the overwhelming majority of cases the lengthening of a final short syllable only occurs when the word concerned is in arsis and comes immediately before the line's main caesura. Another possibly relevant factor is that in the case of 17 of the above instances the short syllable ends in 'r'. If 'r' is considered as a trilled consonant, it can be 'dwelt upon' in pronunciation, so as to lengthen the preceding vowel. 

THE USE OF HENDIADYS IN LATIN

Hendiadys is a figure of speech, more correctly a figure of syntax, in which a phrase normally constituted by a noun and a modifying adjective is converted into one involving two nouns joined by a conjunction, usually 'and'. The word 'hendiadys' itself is a Latinised version of the Greek phrase 'ἓν διὰ δυοῖν' (one through two). Hendiadys is a form of emphasis, and it achieves its purpose by utilising a word structure which is relatively unusual and thereby grabs one's attention. Its best known exponent in the English language is William Shakespeare, who made particular use of it in "Hamlet" but also in other famous tragedies, such as "King Lear" and "Macbeth". In the latter, he describes life as "a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing" (Act 5, Sc. 5, ll. 25-27). In his most entertaining book "The Elements of Eloquence", Mark Forsyth writes as follows: "Whether Shakespeare was thinking of furious sound or sounding fury hardly signifies. The point and beauty of hendiadys is that it sets the words next to each other, that it removes the grammar and relation, that it doubles the words out to give breadth and beauty" (p. 77). 

Shakespeare acquired the taste for using hendiadys by reading Latin authors, particularly Virgil. Hendiadys is particularly suited to poetry where verbal exactness can legitimately be subordinated to atmospheric impression and rhythmic beauty. When it comes to translation, however, hendiadys will often present a challenge, particularly to those such as Sabidius, who are seeking to keep as closely as possible to the grammatical structure and word order of the original Latin. Firstly, one has to decide whether a hendiadys is actually intended - sometimes this is not quite clear, and translators clearly differ in their interpretations. Then, there may be a case for letting the literal words stand: retaining the two-noun phrase may be legitimate as a means of maintaining the emphasis which the author intended, or of portraying the poetic imprecision inherent in the original wording. Then, where it is unclear which of the nouns should receive primacy in the translation, there may be a case for a literal translation which then allows the reader to determine how best the hendiadys should be expressed. With regard to these dilemmas, Sabidius' usual policy is, firstly, to determine whether a hendiadys is intended by the author, and, if so, to then effect a translation which sounds most natural in the context. In some cases the hendiadys can best be retained in the English translation. However, these decisions are often difficult to make, and frequently involve some uncertainty and misgiving.  

In this item, Sabidius sets out to exemplify the way in which Latin authors, copying the usage of the Greeks, use the figure of hendiadys in their works. In the following examples the Latin (or Greek) is shown first in italics, followed by an English translation which renders the hendiadys colloquially, but then provides a literal translation of it in parenthesis. At the same time, the words of the hendiadys itself are underlined both in the original Greek and Latin and then in both versions of the English.

Firstly we look at some examples of hendiadys in Greek:

Demosthenes:

Orationes:

19.123.  αἵ τε πόλεις ... χαλεπαὶ λαβεῖν ... μὴ οὐ χρόνῳ καὶ πολιορκίᾳ.  the cities were difficult to capture unless by protracted siege (lit. unless by length of time and siege). 

Euripides:

Helen:

l. 226-7.  ὁ δὲ σὸς ἐν ἁλὶ κύμασί τε λέλοιπε βίοτον.  your husband has lost his life in the salty waves (lit. in the salt and the waves).

Sophocles:

Electra:

l. 36-7.  ἄσκευον αὐτὸν ἀσπίδων τε καὶ στρατοῦ δόλοισι κλέψαι χειρὸς ενδίκους σφαγάς. that by cunning, without the help of armed force, (lit. of shields and an army) I should stealthily undertake my right hand's righteous slaughters.

Turning now to Latin, Virgil's poetry is the best source for the incidence of hendiadys:

Virgil:

Georgics, Book II:

l. 192.  quam pateris libamus et auro.  as we pour libations (to the gods) from golden bowls (lit. from bowls and gold).


Aeneid, Book I:

l. 52-54.  Hic vasto rex Aeolus antro / luctantes ventos tempestatesque sonoras / imperio premit ac vinclis et carcere frenat. Here King Aeolus in his vast cavern keeps the struggling winds and resounding storms in order and curbs (them) with imprisoning chains (lit. with chains and a prison).

l. 60-62.  Sed pater omnipotens speluncis abdidit atris / hoc metuens, molemque et montes insuper altos imposuit.  But, fearing this, the Almighty Father hid (them) in a black cave, and laid massive mountains high (lit. a mass and high mountains) on top (of them).

l. 110-111.  tres Eurus ab alto / in brevia et Syrtes urget  the East Wind drives three (ships) from the deep towards the shoals of the Syrtes (lit. the shoals and the Syrtes).  

l. 210.  illi se praedae accingunt dapibusque futuris.  they make ready the game for their forthcoming banquet (lit. the game and their forthcoming banquet).

l. 293.  dirae ferro et compagibus artis claudentur Belli portae.  grim with welded iron fastenings (lit. with iron and welded fastenings the gates of War will be closed.

l. 503-504.  se laeta ferebat / per medias instans operi regnisque futuris.  she joyfully rushed through the midst (of the throng) urging on the work of her future kingdom (lit. the work and her future kingdom).

l. 647-648.  Munera praeterea Iliacis erepta ruinis / ferre iubet, palam signis auroque rigentem.  In addition, he orders him to bring gifts saved from the ruins of Ilium, a robe stiff with figures (wrought) in gold (thread) (lit. stiff with figures and with gold).

Aeneid, Book II:

l. 116.  Sanguine placastis ventos et virgine caesa. You appeased the winds with the blood of a slaughtered maiden (lit. with blood and a slaughtered maiden).

l. 469-470.  Pyrrhus / exsultat, telis et luce coruscus aena.  Pyrrhus is exulting, gleaming with weapons of flashing bronze (lit. with weapons and bronze light).

l.  534.  nec voci iraeque pepercit.  nor did he hold back his angry words (lit. his voice and anger).

Aeneid, Book IV:

l. 72.  illa fuga silvas saltusque peragrat / Dictaeos.  She roams the wooded mountain-country (lit. the woods and the mountain-country) of Dicte in her flight.

l. 636.  et pecudes secum et monstrata piacula ducat.  and to bring with her the beasts for sacrifice as ordained (lit. the beasts and ordained offerings).

l. 649.  paulum lacrimis et mente morata.  she lingered for a while in tearful reflection (lit. in tears and reflection).

Aeneid, Book VI:

l. 29.  Daedalus ipse dolos tecti ambagesque resolvit.  Daedalus himself unravels the deceptive windings (lit. the deceptions and windings) of the palace.

l.  230.  spargens rore levi et ramo felicis olivae.  sprinkling them with a light dew from (lit. and with) the bough of a fruitful olive-tree.


While hendiadys lends itself naturally to poetic expression, it it also appears in works of Latin prose. Examples are as follows:

Caesar:

Bellum Gallicum V:

Ch. 19.3.  quantum labore atque itinere legionarii milites efficere poterant.  as legionary soldiers could achieve by strenuous marching (lit. by their labour and by marching).

Bellum Gallicum VI:

Ch. 26.1  ab eius summo sicut palmae ramique late diffunduntur.  from its top branching hand-palms (lit. hand-palms and branches, i.e horn and antlers), as it were, stretch out for a considerable distance

Ch. 27.1  et crura sine nodis articulisque habent.  and have legs without knotted joints (lit. without knots and joints). 


Suetonius:

Divus Claudius:

Ch. 21.6  diu cunctatus an omnes igni ferroque absumeret.  he hesitated for some time, (wondering) whether he should destroy (them) all with fire and sword. (In this case it seems appropriate to retain the hendiadys in the English translation.)