ABLATIVE ABSOLUTES

Introduction.

In the introduction to his translation of Caesar's "De Bello Gallico", Book V, published on this blog on 31st August 2010, Sabidius wrote about Ablative Absolutes as follows:

"Caesar's prose, is as stated above, relatively straightforward to translate. It is full of instances of the ablative absolute construction, which is perhaps the quintessential characteristic of the Latin language. An ablative absolute is a phrase detached from the main clause of a sentence, at the heart of which is a participle, or verbal adjective, agreeing with a noun or pronoun in the ablative case (viz. an ablative of attendant circumstances), when this noun is not the subject or object of the main verb. Because orthodox verbs in Latin lack the form of a past participle in the active voice, ablative absolutes using past participles passive are often necessary to compensate for this lack, with the grammatical sense having to be inverted into the passive voice. In translating into English, it is common to restore the active construction and thus to attach the participle to the subject or object of the main verb, something which is not possible in Latin through the lack of a past participle active. At the same time ablative absolutes are often used, as indeed are participles in general, as an alternative to subordinate clauses. When translating into English, it is common to replace the participle with such a subordinate clause, e.g. a temporal or a concessive clause. The use of participles in general, and ablative absolutes in particular, facilitates that conciseness of expression and economy in the use of words which are the hallmarks of the Latin language."

Sabidius has recently completed a translation of Book III of the "De Bello Gallico", and in order to illustrate Caesar's fondness for this construction and to demonstrate the different ways in which it can both be used in Latin and translated into English, he has listed below 117 instances of the ablative absolute in the twenty-nine chapters of this book. Each instance is accompanied by a literal translation into English and a suggested alternative of the various more colloquial translations of it that might be possible. Before that, however, Sabidius offers some further reflections on the grammatical significance of the ablative absolute which may be of interest to the student of Latin literature.

The Ablative Absolute as a Participial Phrase.

Firstly, attention is given to the ablative absolute construction as an example of the use of participles. While participles are verbal adjectives, and in that sense they qualify nouns, they are most commonly used adverbially, as an alternative to an adverbial subordinate clause, and predicatively, in that they provide an extension to the predicate of the sentence. As stated above the ablative absolute is usually a participial phrase, and the majority of these involve a past participle passive of transitive verbs, i.e. verbs which take an object. When these are translated into English, these phrases are usually rendered in one of three ways: a) into a subordinate adverbial clause, most commonly a temporal clause, but in some cases causal, concessive and conditional clauses as well; b) by the retention of a phrase, usually participial, as in the case of the ablative absolute, but sometimes prepositional, i.e. in circumstances where the need for a verb is not essential; and c) by breaking up the structure of the Latin complex sentence, which is sometimes lengthy,  and employing an additional main verb. In all of these cases, other than the prepositional phrase where no verb is present, it is usual to revert to the use of the active voice in the translation, although when the subject of the action is unclear or there is a desire to maintain the focus of attention on the object of the action the passive sense may be profitably retained. Past participle passives are, of course, only available to transitive verbs, and in the case of intransitive verbs, including verbs that take the dative case, another type of construction, usually a temporal clause with "cum" (when), must be used instead of an ablative absolute. While most participial phrases involving ablative absolutes do use the past participle passive, the use of the present participle active is quite common and can be used for all verbs, both transitive and intransitive. On the other hand, the future participle active is not found in the absolute absolute construction. However, Latin literature does make a considerable use of the past participle of deponent verbs, which, because they are active in meaning, can facilitate an escape from the somewhat tortuous convolution which the past participle passive sometimes involves, and for this reason they can be a useful device, too, to those translating English into Latin.The past participle of deponent verbs is often used with the force of a present participle, because, the present participle of such verbs, while possible, is uncommon. 

While the majority of ablative absolutes does involve participles, some consist of a noun with an adjective, or another, appositional, noun, in agreement with it. A number of well-known short phrases are associated with this construction: e.g. "me consule", in my consulship, (lit. with me [being] consul); "te auctore", at your suggestion, (lit. with you [being] the author); "me invito", against my will, (lit. with me [being] unwilling); "aequo Marte", on equal terms in battle, (lit. the battle [being] equal). In some cases, an adjective is used impersonally as an ablative absolute without a noun: e.g. "consulto", on purpose, (lit. [it being] deliberated on); "falso", falsely, (lit. [it being] deceived), "sereno", under a cloudless sky, lit. ([it being] clear). In such cases these single words effectively become adverbs. In all these cases, the incidence of an ablative absolute with a noun or adjective instead of a participle, or where an adjective is used impersonally, arises because the verb "sum" (I am) has no present participle. If a present participle of "sum" is understood, as in the literal translations indicated above, these phrases become participial too. 

Finally, with regard to the structural significance of ablative absolutes, it must be emphasised, that with very occasional exceptions, Latin authors would never use an ablative absolute if the participle could agree with either the subject or object of the sentence. So, the Latin for 'With the city captured, the soldiers proceeded to plunder it would always be "Urbem captam milites diripuebant" (lit. the soldiers plundered the having-been-captured city), and never "Urbe capta, milites eam diripiebant". The ablative absolute construction is effectively restricted to situations where the noun to which the participle in this type of phrase belongs is structurally 'detached' from the main clause of the sentence. Indeed, the word 'absolute' comes from the Latin verb "absolvo" (past participle "absolutus"), I loosen or set free. 

Why this construction is in the Ablative Case.

While attention has now been given to the participial implications of the ablative absolute, it is important to look also at the reasons for the use of the ablative case in this context. It seems most likely that the ablative absolute construction is directly linked to the 'Sociative-Instrumental or 'with'-case functions of the ablative case, and this usage should be distinguished from its True Ablative or 'from'-case, or its Locatival or 'in'-case functions. The ablative performing the Sociative-Instrumental or 'with'-case functions can be identified from these other functions of the case by the absence of a preposition or by the use of the preposition "cum" (with). Amongst its Sociative-Instrumental functions is the Ablative of Accompaniment. When used in this sense, the ablative denotes a person or thing in association with whom, or with which, an act is performed. In this context the preposition "cum" (with) is commonly used, but, when the ablative noun in the phrase is qualified by an epithet, i.e. an adjective or participle, the preposition is frequently omitted. In such instances, the words in the ablative may denote, not a concrete accompaniment of someone or something, but the circumstances under which the action is performed, or even the circumstances arising from it, e.g. 'He acted with my full blessing'; 'He attacked with great risk'. When used in this way an Ablative of Accompaniment is known as an Ablative of Attendant Circumstances, and the ablative absolute construction can best be regarded as a special type of this. 

The ablative absolute construction is to be distinguished from other instances of the Ablative of Attendant Circumstances in that the participle within the construction is, as stated above, predicative rather than attributive, that is it adds something additional to the predicate and does not simply adhere to its noun in an adjectival or adnominal fashion. Sometimes a phrase can be translated either as a straightforward ablative of attendant circumstances with an attributive adjective, or as an ablative absolute with a past participle being used predicatively. For instance the Latin sentence, "Ex urbe exibant capitibus opertis", can be translated  either 'They went out of the city with covered heads', or 'Having covered their heads (lit. their heads having been covered), they went out of the city'. (N.B. "opertis" comes from the past participle passive of "operio", I cover. In the first of these two translations it is used as an adjective, and in the second as the original participle.) Such ambiguity is not uncommon (See examples in Chapters 4, 12, 26 and 28 below.) 

It should also be pointed out that some see the ablative absolute as an outgrowth of the locatival functions of the ablative, and it is possible that certain locatival expressions, e.g. "terra marique", on land and sea, may well have contributed to its development. 

Instances of the Ablative Absolute in Caesar's "De Bello Gallico", Book III: (117)

Set out below, chapter by chapter, are all the instances of the ablative absolute construction to be found in this book. In each case, the line in which the phrase is to be found in Gould & Whiteley's text used by Sabidius in his translation, is shown, and the actual Latin words are highlighted in italics. Then two translations follow: firstly, a literal translation of Caesar's words as shown in Sabidius' translation (see the beginning of the introduction above), in which, in the case of past participles, the passive sense is retained; and, secondly, a colloquial translation is suggested. With regard to the latter it is emphasised that the number of possible alternatives is likely to be considerable. However some attempt has been made to exemplify the range of these possibilities in the different renderings offered, and the particular type of approach followed is highlighted in parenthesis at the end of each colloquial translation. Where a reversion to the active voice has occurred this is also indicated. 

Chapter 1: (6)

l.10:  secundis aliquot proeliis factis: 1) lit. several successful engagements having been conducted; 2) colloq. He fought several successful battles. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.10:  castellisque compluribus eorum pugnatis: 1) lit. and several of their forts having been stormed; 2) colloq. and stormed a number of their forts. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.11:  missis ad eum undique legatis: 1) lit. deputies having been sent to him from all sides; 2) colloq.  when envoys had been sent to him from all directions. (Temporal clause.)

l.12:  obsidibusque datis: 1) lit. and hostages having been given; 2) colloq. and (when they) had given hostages. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.12:  pace facta: 1) lit. peace having been made; 2) colloq. (when) peace had been made. (Temporal clause.)

l.16:  non magna adiecta planitie; 1) lit. not a great plain having been added nearby; 2) colloq. situated in a rather narrow valley. (Participial phrase.)  

Chapter 2: (1)

1.9:  detractis cohortibus duabus et compluribus singillatim: 1) lit. two cohorts and several men individually having been drawn off; 2) colloq. because two cohorts and several men on an individual basis had been detached. (Causal clause.)

Chapter 3: (9)

1.1:  his nuntiis acceptis: 1) lit. these messages having been received; 2) colloq. when he had received the news. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.4:  deditione facta: 1) lit. the surrender having been made; 2) colloq. after/since the enemy had surrendered. (Temporal or Causal clause in active voice.)

l.4:  obsidisque acceptis: 1) lit. and hostages having been received; 2) colloq. and (after/since) they had given hostages. (Temporal or Causal clause in active voice.)

l.5:  consilio celeriter convocato: 1) lit. a council having been speedily summoned; 2) colloq. he called a council. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.11:  interclusis itineribus:  1) lit. routes having been cut off; 2) colloq. because the enemy had blocked the road. (Causal clause in active voice.)

l.11:  prope iam desperata salute: 1) lit. their safety having now been nearly despaired of; 2) colloq. because they had now almost despaired of safety. (Causal clause in active voice.)

1.13:  impedimenta relictis: 1) lit. the baggage having been abandoned; 2) colloq. if they were to abandon the baggage. (Conditional clause in active voice.)

l.13:  eruptione facta: 1) lit. a sortie having been made; 2) colloq. (if they) were to make a sortie. (Conditional clause in active voice.)

l.15.  hoc reservato ad extremum consilio: this plan having been reserved for the final (resort); 2) colloq. keeping this plan as a last resort. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

Chapter 4:(3)

l.1;  brevi spatio interiecto: 1) lit. a short space (of time) having been placed between; 2) colloq. after a short interval. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.3:  signo dato: 1) lit. the signal having been given; 2) colloq. at/upon a given signal. (Prepositional phrase.)

1.5:  integris viribus: 1) lit. their strength (being) unimpaired; 2) colloq. as long as their strength was unimpaired. (Temporal clause.)

N.B. The last of these can be seen as an Ablative of Attendant Circumstances with a literal translation 'with unimpaired strength'. In this case 'integris' would then have attributive rather than the predicative force associated with the Ablative Absolute construction. See also the sixth absolute absolute in Chapter 26.

Chapter 5: (4)

l.3:  languidioribus nostris: 1) lit. our men (being) feebler; 2) colloq. since our men were losing their strength. (Causal clause.)

l.10:  eruptione facta: 1) lit. a sally having been made; 2) colloq. after they had made a sally. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.12:  convocatis centurionibus celeriter: 1) lit. the centurions having been speedily called together; 2) colloq. after/when he had speedily summoned the centurions. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.15:  dato signo: 1) lit. the signal having been given; 2) colloq. at /upon a given signal. (Prepositional phrase.)

Chapter 6: (9)

l.2:  subito ... eruptione facta: 1) lit. a sortie having suddenly been made; 2) colloq. when they had made a sudden sortie. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.4:  ita commutata fortuna: 1) so fortune having changed; 2) colloq. so there was a complete reversal of fortune. (Main clause.)

l.8:  plus tertia parte interfecto: 1) lit. more than a third part having been killed; 2) colloq. they slew more than a third of them. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.10:  omnibus hostium copiis fusis: 1) lit. all the forces of the enemy having been routed; 2) having put to flight all the forces of the enemy. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.11:  (omnibus hostium copiis) armisque exutis: 1) lit. and (all the forces of the enemy) having been stripped of their arms; 2) colloq. and having stripped them of their arms. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.12:  quo proelio facto: 1) lit. which battle having been undertaken; 2) colloq. after/when they had fought this battle. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.16:  omnibus eius vici aedificiis incensis: 1) lit. all the buildings of that village having been burned; 2) colloq. he burned all the buildings in that village. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.18:  nullo hoste prohibente: 1) lit. no enemy hindering (him); 2) colloq. as no enemy was hindering (him). (Causal clause.)

l.18:  (nullo hoste) iter demorante: 1) lit. (no enemy) delaying his march; 2) colloq. (as no enemy) was delaying his march. (Causal clause.) 

Chapter 7: (5)

l.1:  his rebus gestis: 1) lit. these things having been done; 2) colloq. after these events. (Prepositional phrase.)

1.2:  superatis Belgis: 1) lit. the Belgae having been defeated; 2) colloq. because the Belgae had been defeated. (Causal clause.)

l.2:  expulsis Germanis: 1) lit. the Germans having been driven out; 2) colloq. (because) the Germans had been driven out. (Causal clause.)

l.3:  victis in Alpibus Sedunis: 1) lit. the Seduni having been conquered in the Alps; 2) colloq. (because) the Seduni had been conquered in the Alps. (Causal clause.)

l.4:  inita hieme: 1) lit. winter having been entered into; 2) colloq. at the beginning of winter. (Prepositional phrase.)

Chapter 8: (3)

l.6:  paucis portibus interiectis: 1) lit. a few harbours having been placed between; 2) colloq. with only a few harbours here and there. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.13:  celeriter missis legatis per suos principes: 1) lit. envoys having been speedily sent by means of their leading citizens; 2) colloq. having despatched their leading citizens as envoys. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.19:  omni ora maritima celeriter ad suam sententiam producta: 1) lit. the whole sea coast having been speedily brought round to their opinion: 2) colloq. having rapidly brought the whole sea coast round to their opinion. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

Chapter 9: (3)

l.5:  his rebus celeriter administratis: 1) lit. these matters having been quickly organised; 2) colloq. when he had speedily organised these matters. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.8:  cognito Caesaris adventu: 1) Caesar's arrival having been learned of; 2) colloq. because they had learned of Caesar's arrival. (Causal clause in active voice.)

l.26:  his initis consiliis: 1) lit. these plans having been entered into; 2) colloq. on the adoption of these plans. (Prepositional phrase.)

Chapter 10: (2)

l.4:  datis obsidibus: 1) lit. hostages having been given; 2) colloq. after hostages had been given. (Temporal clause.)

l.6:  hac parte neglecta: 1) lit. this district having been disregarded; 2) if he were to disregard this district. (Conditional clause in active voice.)

Chapter 11: (O)

Chapter 12: (7)

l.5:  minuente aestu: 1) lit. the tide ebbing; 2) colloq. at the ebb-tide. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.8: extruso mari aggere et molibus: 1) lit. the sea having been excluded by a mound and moles; 2) colloq.  with a massive causeway keeping out the sea. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

1.9:  his oppidi moenibus adaequatis: 1) lit. these having been brought level to the walls of the stronghold; 2) colloq. when this was brought level to the walls of the stronghold. (Temporal clause.)

l.10:  magno numero navium appulso: 1) lit. a great number of ships having been brought in to land; 2) colloq. bringing up a large number of ships. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

1.16:  vasto atque aperto mari: 1) lit. the sea (being) vast and open; 2) colloq. because the sea was vast and open. (Causal clause.)

l.17:  magnis aestibus: 1) the tides (being) great; 2) colloq. (because) the tides were strong. (Causal clause)

l.17:  raris ac prope nullis portibus: 1) the harbours (being) scattered and nearly none at all; 2) colloq. (because) the harbours were few-and-far-between and almost non-existent. (Causal clause).

N.B.  The last three ablative absolutes can be seen as locatives or local ablatives, in which the preposition is often omitted where the noun has an adjective attached to it. See also Chapter 28.

Chapter 13: (0)

Chapter 14: (5)

l.1:  compluribus expugnatis oppidis: 1) lit. several strongholds having been stormed; 2) colloq. after he had stormed several strongholds. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.3:  captis oppidis: 1) lit. their strongholds having been stormed; 2) colloq. by the capture of their strongholds. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.12:  turribus autem excitatis: 1) lit. but towers having been raised (on deck); 2) colloq. even if towers were built (on deck). (Concessive clause.)

l.21:  quibus abscisis: 1) lit. which things having been severed; 2) with the (halyards) cut. (Participial phrase.)

l.24:  his ereptis: 1) lit. these things having been removed: 2) colloq. when these things were torn away. (Temporal clause.)

Chapter 15: (3)

l.1:  disiectis ... antemnis: 1) lit. their yard-arms having been dismantled; 2) colloq. when their ships' yard-arms had been torn down. (Temporal clause.)

l.5:  expugnatis compluribus navibus: 1) lit. several of their ships having been stormed; 2) colloq. since several of their ships had been boarded. (Temporal clause.)

l.7:  iam conversis in eam partem navibus quo ventus ferebat: 1) lit. their ships having now been turned to that quarter towards which the wind bore (them); 2) when they had steered their ships so as to run before the wind. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

Chapter 16: (2)

l.6:  quibus amissis: 1) lit. which things having been lost; 2) colloq. since all these (ships) had been lost. (Causal clause.)

l.11:  omni senatu necato: 1) the entire senate having been executed; 2) colloq. after he had executed the entire senate. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

Chapter 17: (4)

l.7:  senatu suo interfecto: 1) lit. their senate having been slain; 2) colloq. after puttting their senate to death. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.13:  idoneo omnibus rebus loco: 1) lit. his position (being) suitable in all respects; 2) in a spot suited to any emergency. (Prepositional phrase.)

1.15:  cotidieque productis copiis: 1) lit. his forces having been led out daily; 2) by leading his forces out daily. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.22:  eo absente: 1) lit. him being absent; 2) colloq. in the absence of the man. (Prepositional phrase.)

Chapter 18: (2)

l.21:  qua re concessa: 1) lit. which thing having been granted; 2) colloq. when their request was granted. (Temporal clause.)

l.22:  sarmentis virgultisque collectis: 1) lit. faggots and brushwood having been collected; 2) colloq.  after collecting faggots and brushwood. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

Chapter 19: (1)

l.6: impeditis hostibus: 1) lit. the enemy having been encumbered; 2) colloq. while the enemy were hampered. (Temporal clause.)

Chapter 20: (9)

l.6:  exercitu pulso: 1) lit. his army having been routed; 2) colloq. after his army had been defeated. (Temporal clause.)

l.8:  impedimentis amissis: 1) lit. his baggage having been lost; 2) colloq. with the loss of all his baggage. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.10:  re frumentaria provisa: 1) lit. a corn supply having been provided; 2) colloq. he arranged for a supply of corn. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.10:  auxiliis equitatuque comparato: 1) lit. auxiliaries and cavalry having been procured; 2) colloq. he procured auxiliaries and cavalry. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.11:  multis praeterea viris fortibus ... nominatim evocatis: 1) lit. also many brave men have been called up by name; 2) colloq.  he also called up on an individual basis many brave men. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.14:  cuius adventu cognito: 1) lit. whose arrival having been learned of; 2) colloq. on hearing of his arrival (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.15;  magnis copiis coactis equitatuque: 1) lit. great forces and much cavalry having been assembled; 2) colloq. they assembled a large force with much cavalry. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.18:  equitatu suo pulso: 1) lit. their cavalry having been routed; 2) colloq. when their cavalry had been defeated. (Temporal clause.)

l.19:  insequentibus nostris: 1) lit. our men pursuing (them); 2) colloq. with our men in pursuit. (Prepositional phrase.)

Chapter 21: (6)

l.5:  adulescentulo duce: 1) lit. their leader (being) a young man; 2) colloq. under a youthful leader. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.7:  magno numero interfecto: 1) lit. a great number having been slain; 2) colloq. after killing a large number of them. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.8:  quibus fortiter resistentibus: 1) lit. which men resisting bravely; 2) colloq. when/since they resisted bravely. (Temporal or Causal clause.)

1.10:  alias eruptione temptata: 1) lit. at one time a sally having been tried; 2) colloq. at first they attempted a sally. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.10:  alias cuniculis ad aggerem vineasque actis: 1) lit. at another time mines having been employed up to our rampart and mantlets; 2) colloq. then they pushed mines right up to our rampart and mantlets. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.16:  qua re impetrata: 1) lit. this request having been obtained: 2) on the acceptance of their request. (Prepositional phrase.)

Chapter 22: (3)

l.1:  in ea re omnium nostrorum intentis animis: 1) lit. the attention of all our men having been concentrated upon this matter; 2) colloq. while the attention of all our men was fully occupied with this. (Temporal clause.)

l.9:  eo interfecto: 1) lit. that man having been killed; 2) colloq. on the slaughter of that man. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.11:  clamore ... sublato: 1) a shout having been raised; 2) colloq. when a shout went up. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

Chapter 23: (2)

1.1:  armis obsidibusque acceptis: 1) lit. their arms and hostages having been received; 2) colloq. after receiving their arms and hostages.  (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.23:  hac re ad consilium delata: 1) this plan having been referred to a council-of-war; 2) on putting the plan to a council-of-war. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

Chapter 24: (9)

1.1:  prima luce productis omnibus copiis: 1) lit. all his forces having been led out at first light; 2) colloq. at dawn he brought out all his forces. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.1:  duplici acie instituta: 1) lit. a double battle-line having been formed; 2) colloq. he deployed them in two lines. (Main clause in active voice.)

1.2:  auxiliis in mediam aciem collectis: 1) lit. the auxiliaries having been gathered in the centre of the line; 2) colloq. with the auxiliaries being grouped in the centre. (Participial phrase.)

l.6:  obsessis victis: 1) lit. the roads having been beset; 2) colloq. by blocking the roads. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

1.6:  commeatu intercluso: 1) lit. supplies having been cut off (from our men); 2) colloq. by cutting off (our men's) supplies. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.11:  hoc consilio probato ab ducibus: 1) lit. this plan having been approved by their leaders; 2) colloq. their leaders approved this plan. (Main clause in active voice.)

1.11: productis Romanorum copiis: 1) lit. the Roman forces having been led out; 2) colloq. although the Romans  led out their forces. ( Concessive clause in active voice.)

l.13:  hac re perspecta: 1) lit. this measure having been perceived; 2) colloq. (Crassus) noted this. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.17:  omnibus cupientibus:  1) lit. everyone desiring (this); 2) colloq. amid general enthusiasm. (Prepositional phrase.)

Chapter 25: (2)

l.1:  multis telis coiectis: 1) lit. missiles having been hurled together; 2) colloq. by a rain of missiles. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.9:  circumitis hostium castris: 1) lit. the enemy's camp having been ridden around; 2) colloq. having ridden around the enemy's camp. (Participial phrase in active voice).

Chapter 26: (8)

l.4:  eductis eis cohortibus: 1) lit. those cohorts having been led out; 2) colloq. they led out those cohorts. (Main clause in active voice.)

1.5:  (eis cohortibus) longiore itinere circumductis: 1) lit. (those cohorts) having been led around by a longer route; 2) colloq. having led them around by a wide detour. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.6:  omnium oculis mentibusque ad pugnam intentis: 1) lit. the eyes and minds of all having been concentrated on the battle;  2) colloq. while the eyes and minds of all were intent upon the battle. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.9:  his prorutis: 1) lit. these having been demolished; 2) colloq. demolishing these. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.11:  clamore ab ea parte audito:  1) a shout from that quarter having been heard; 2) colloq. when shouting was heard in that quarter. (Temporal clause.)

l.12:  redintegratis viribus: 1) lit. their strength having been renewed; 2) colloq. with renewed strength. (Prepositional phrase.)

N.B. The above can also be seen as an ablative of attendant circumstances, in which case the suggested colloquial translation would become the literal one as well. In this case 'redintegratis' would have attributive rather than predicative force. See also the third ablative absolute in Chapter 4.


l.15:  desperatis omnibus rebus: 1) lit. all their affairs having been despaired of; 2) colloq. in utter despair. (Prepositional phrase.)

l.19:  vix parta quarta relicta: 1) lit. scarcely a fourth part having been left (alive); 2) colloq. barely a quarter escaped. (Main clause in active voice.)

Chapter 27: (1)

l.1:  hac audita pugna: 1) lit. this battle having been heard of; 2) colloq. when they heard about this battle. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

Chapter 28: (4)

l.2:  omni Gallia pacata: 1) lit. the whole of Gaul having been pacified; 2) colloq. while all Gaul was at peace. (Temporal clause in active voice.)

l.13:  dispersis in opere nostris: 1) lit. our men having been dispersed on their duties; 2) colloq. our men were working in scattered groups. (Main clause in active voice.)

l.16:  compluribus interfectis: 1) lit. many (of the enemy) having been killed; 2) colloq. after killing many (of the enemy). (Temporal clause ina ctive voice.)

l.17: impeditioribus locis: 1) lit. the ground (being) rather difficult: 2) colloq. over rather difficult ground. (Prepositional phrase.)

N.B. The last of these can be seen as a locative or local ablative, where the preposition can be omitted with regard to a noun to which an adjective is attached. See also Chapter 12. In that case the colloquial translation shown here would become the literal translation and 'impeditioribus' would become attributive rather than predicative in function.

Chapter 29: (4)

l.2:  inermibus imprudentibus que militibus: 1) lit. our soldiers (being) unarmed and unprepared; 2) colloq.   while our soldiers were unarmed and unprepared. (Temporal clause.)

l.6:  magno spatio paucis diebus confecto: 1) lit. a great space having been cleared in a few days; 2) colloq. a great space was cleared in a few days. (Main clause.)

l.12:  vastatis omnibus eorum agris: 1) lit. all their fields having been ravaged; 2) colloq. after ravaging all their fields. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

l.12:  vicis aedificiis incensis: 1) lit. their villages and buildings having been burned; 2) colloq. (after) burning their villages and buildings. (Participial phrase in active voice.)

GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES: EXEMPLIFICATION

Preface:

On 6 March 2010 Sabidius issued on this blogspot a short item concerning the use of Gerunds (verbal nouns) and Gerundives (passive verbal adjectives) in Latin; and on 17 January 2011 he followed this up with an article entitled "Nunc est bibendum", which was a detailed discussion of the controversy concerning whether the "bibendum" in this famous quotation was a Gerund or a Gerundive, and thus the alternative possibilities for its translation. Now, having just completed a translation of Book XXX of Livy's history (see article dated 26 November 2011 on this blogspot), Sabidius has combed this text for all its uses of both Gerunds and Gerundives in order to provide actual examples of these in relation to the possible types of use listed in the article dated 6 March 2010. Each example shown below is identified by the number of the relevant chapter and section where it may be found, and the actual Gerund or Gerundive, and the words used in English to translate it, are highlighted in italics. The English translations shown below are cast in a literal form, and, in the case of Gerundives, these translations reflect the fact that these are passive in voice. However, in his recent translation of Book XXX, Sabidius has rendered most of these Gerundives in an active voice, but with the more literal passive version, as shown below, indicated in brackets.  

A.  GERUNDS (Total 41):

1.  In the Accusative Case:  following the preposition 'ad' to express purpose (2):

12.6. non dari spatium ad cessandum: time is not given for loitering.

16.13.  ad consultandum: for deliberating.

2.  In the Genitive Case:  objective genitive following certain abstract nouns and adjectives (16):

1.5 (x2).  suadendi ac dissuadendi locus esset:  there was an opportunity for persuading and dissuading.

3.7. causa probabilis suis commeandi foret: there should be a plausible pretext for his (emissaries) for going to and fro.

3.10.  spem fecerant ... incendi:  had caused (him) hope of setting fire.

4.6.   omnia visendi ... tempus:  the time to inspect everything.

4.7.  neglegentia ... orta cavendi:  neglect to take precautions arose.

10.19.  transiliendi datum spatium propugnatoribus:  time given to the fighting men for jumping across.

17.6 (x3).  circumeundi salutandique deos agendique grates potestas fieret:  the opportunity should be available ... of going around and paying their respects to the gods and of giving their thanks.

22.5.  potestatem interrogandi ... legatos:  the opportunity of interrogating the ambassadors.

28.8.  nullum propinquum debellandi finem:  no end of the fighting approaching.

29.5.  colloquendi secum potestatem:  an opportunity of holding a conference with him.

33.8.  non causa militandi eadem esset:  no reason for military service was the same.

37.2.  populandique finem:  an end to devastation.

43.7  sibi quos vellent ... redimendi potestas fieret:  the opportunity might occur to them of ransoming (those) whom they wished.  

3.  In the Ablative Case:  instrumental ablative (N.B. in some cases it is possible to see these as  ablatives of manner, or modal ablatives) (22):

8.3 (x2).  succendo ad stationes hostium lacessendoque:  by coming up to the enemy's outposts and challenging (them).

12.8 (x2).  nec quae acta essent promendo ... nec suadendo: neither by revealing what had been done ... nor by persuasion.

13.2.  victoriam suam augendo:  by exaggerating their victory.

18.3.  praeter spem resistendo:  by resisting contrary to expectation.

20.2  vetando supplementum et pecuniam mitti:  by forbidding reinforcements and money being sent.

23.3 (x2).  caedendo exercitus, agros populandi:  by destroying their armies, and by ravaging their lands.

28.5.  senex vincendo factus:  having become elderly by conquest.

28.8.  has formidines agitando animis:  by pondering these apprehensions in their minds.

30.23 (x2).  non statuendo felicitati modum nec cohibendo efferentem se fortunam:  by setting no limit to his success and by not checking a good fortune (which was) carrying him away.

32.5 (x2).  admonendo atque hortando:  by admonition and exhortation.

34.5.  primos caedendo:  by cutting down the men in the front rank.

34.10.  vagam ante se cernendo aciem:  in perceiving the unsteady line in front of them.

42.14 (x2).  nunc purgando crimina, nunc quaedam fatendo:  at one moment by excusing the charges, (and) at another moment by admitting some (of them).

42.14.  nunc monendo etiam patres conscripti:  now by even admonishing the conscript fathers.

42.17 (x2).  plus paene parcendo victis quam vincendo:  almost more by sparing the vanquished than by crushing (them).

4.  In the Ablative Case: after a preposition which takes the ablative (1):

13.9.  eadem haec et Syphax animis in adloquendo victorem: these same (considerations) also gave Syphax courage in addressing the victor. (N.B. This usage of the gerund after a preposition taking the ablative is unusual in that it is followed by a direct object. In practice, a gerundive would normally be used in classical Latin, i.e. in victore adloquendo, in this case. See section B.4.j. below.)

B.  GERUNDIVES (Total 79):

1.  Predicative adjective (passive) used, in respect of a transitive verb, to denote necessity, obligation or propriety (19):

a.  In the Nominative Case (5):

1.5.  seu causa oranda:  whether a legal case a legal case (was) needing to be pleaded. 

4.5.  seu consulendus Hasdrubal et Carthaginienses essent:  or if Hasdrubal and the Carthaginians were needing to be consulted.

14.5.  tibi appetendus visus sim:  I may have seemed to you worthy to be approached.

30.22.  ea habenda fortuna erit, quam di dederint:  that fortune will be needing to be accepted which the gods will have granted.

40.10.  si deportandus exercitus victor ex Africa esset:  if the victorious army was due to be brought back from Africa.

b.  In the Accusative Case (14):

7.7 (x2).  reparandum exercitum Syphacemque hortandum:  that the army (was) needing to be reinforced and Syphax (was) needing to be encouraged.

9.7.  legatos ... ad Hannibalem mittendos:  that delegates (were) needing to be sent to Hannibal.

16.14.  nullas recusandas condiciones pacis:  that no terms of peace (were) right to be refused.

17.2.  regem in custodia Albam mittendum:  that the king was needing to be sent to prison at Alba.

17.2.  Laelium retinendum:  that Laelius was needing to be retained.

23.1.  consulem ... arcessendum:  that the consul ... (was) needing to be summoned.

23.4 (x2).  accipiendam abnuendamve pacem esse: peace was needing to be accepted or needing to be rejected.

23.5 (x2).  iubendosque Italia excedere et custodes cum iis ... mittendos:  and that they (were) needing to be ordered  from Italy, and that guards (were) needing to be sent with them.

26.4.  legatos ad regem ... mittendos: that ambassadors (were) needing to be sent to the king.

31.10.  habendamque eam fortuna quam dei dedissent: that that fortune (was) needing to be accepted that the gods had given.

36.3.  admovendam ... undique terror:  that terror (was) needing to be brought to bear from all sides.

2.  Predicative adjective (passive), used, in respect of an intransitive verb or a transitive verb being employed intransitively, to denote necessity, obligation or propriety. (N.B. This usage is a form of the impersonal passive construction. Some grammatical authorities have considered it to be a case of the gerund rather than the gerundive.) (6):

a.  In the Nominative Case (3):

12.16.  quid Carthaginiensi ab Romano ... timendum sit, vides:  you know what it is necessary to be feared by a Carthaginian from a Roman.

30.18.  maxime cuique fortunae minime credendum est:  it is necessary to be trusted least in respect of each (piece of)  good fortune.

31.3.  sic mihi laborandum est:  it is needing to be endeavoured by me.

b.  In the Accusative Case, as the subject of an indirect statement (3):

21.9.  deis grates agendas:  that thanks (were) needing to be given to the gods.

23.5.  Scipioni scribendum:  that it (was) needing to be written to Scipio.

31.10.  armis decernendum esse:  that it was needing to be decided by (force of) arms.

3.  Predicative adjective used in the sense of a present participle passive. (N.B. This is a survival from early Latin usage.) (1):

a.  In the Nominative Case (1):

16.4.  ex ea regione ex qua oriundi erant:  from that land from which they were sprung.

4.  Attributive adjective (passive) (53): 

a.  In the Nominative Case, with the force of necessity, obligation or propriety (2):

2.5.  Italiae ora ... tuenda:  the coast of Italy needing to be defended. 

45.5.  Polybius, haudquaquam spernendus auctor:  Polybius, an authority by no means suitable to be despised.

b.  In the Accusative Case, as the subject of indirect statement, with the force of necessity, obligation or propriety (2):

37.1.  deos et ius iurandum esse:  that the gods and an oath needing to be sworn (really) do exist.

37.12.  cetera quae abessent aestimanda Scipioni permitti:  that the other things needing to be assessed in value, which were missing, should be left to Scipio.

c.  In the Accusative Case, attached to a noun preceded by the preposition 'ad', and denoting purpose (28):

2.4.  ad tuendam Sardiniam oram:  for the purpose of the coast of Sardinia being defended.

3.3.  ad commeatus intercipiendos:  for the purpose of their supplies being intercepted.

4.6.  ad comparanda ea quae in rem erant: for the purpose of those things which were in his project to be arranged.

5.8.  ad restinguendum incendium: with the purpose of the fire being extinguished.

7.6.  ad tuendam ab exitiali bello patriam: with the purpose of his country being defended from a war of destruction.

9.1.  ad persequendos Syphacem atque Hasdrubalem:  with the purpose of Syphax and Hasdrubal being pursued.

9.5.  ad Hannibalem arcessendum:  for the purpose of Hannibal being summoned.

9.6  ad opprimendam stationem navium:  with the purpose of the squadron of ships being overwhelmed.

12.10.  ad regiam occupandam:  for the purpose of the palace being occupied.

13.3.  ad amicitiam eius petendam: for the purpose of his friendship being sought.

14.4.  ad iugendam mecum amicitiam: with the purpose of a friendship being joined with me.

16.3.  ad pacem petendam: for the purpose of peace being sought.

16.3.  ad ipsum senatum regendum: for the purpose of the senate itself being directed.

16.15.  ad pacem petendam: for the purpose of peace being sought.

18.2.  ad inferenda in hostes signa: with the purpose of charging (lit. their standards being carried  towards) the enemy.

18.12.  ad augendum pavorem ac tumultum:  with the purpose of the panic and confusion being increased.

21.3.  ad conducenda auxilia:  with the purpose of auxiliary troops being hired.

26.2.  ad res repetendas: with the purpose of these matters being redressed.

29.1.  ad reficiendum ex iactatione maritima militem:  for the purpose of his army being revived from the tossing of the sea.

30.3.  ad pacem petendam:  for the purpose of peace being sought.

30.14.  ad tutandam Italiam:  for the purpose of Italy being defended.

31.7.  ad pacem petendam: for the purpose of peace being solicited.

34.4.  ad pellendum hostem: for the purpose of the enemy being repelled.

36.6.  ad contemplandum Carthaginis situm:  with the purpose of the site of Carthage being surveyed.

36.10.  ad delendam Carthaginem: to the purpose of Carthage being destroyed.

37.7.  ad dissuadendam pacem: with the purpose of the peace being opposed.

43.9.  ad foedus feriendum: with the purpose of the treaty being sanctioned (lit. being struck).

45.2.  ad habendos honores: for the purpose of honour being done (to him).

d.  In the Genitive Case, qualifying a noun in the objective genitive (4):

1.10.  non temporis sed rei gerendae fine:  not with a limit of time but of a task being undertaken.

3.4.  Syphacis ... reconciliandi curam: his concern for Syphax being reconciled.

9.5.  rara mentio pacis, frequentior legatorum ... mittendorum:  seldom is there a mention of peace, more frequently (a mention) of delegates being sent.

12.20.  ne quid relinqueret integri ... ipsi Scipioni consulendi:  in order that he might not leave anything fresh to Scipio himself to be resolved.

e.  In the Genitive Case, qualifying a noun in the possessive genitive (1):

9.4.  quae diutinae obsidionis tolerandae sunt:  those things which belong to a lengthy siege being endured.

f.  In the Genitive Case, qualifying a noun preceding the preposition 'causa', and denoting purpose (2):

36.6 (x2).  non tam noscendi ... quam deprimendi hostis causa:  not so much for the sake of the enemy being reconnoitred as (for the sake of it) being humiliated.

g.  In the Dative Case, attached to a noun in the dative of purpose or action contemplated (5):

6.3.  quae restinguendo igni forent:  such things as might be suitable for a fire being extinguished.

8.1.  Uticae oppugnandae intentum:  intent upon Utica being invested.

12.18.  data dextra ... obligandae fidei:  his right-hand having been given for his faith to be pledged.

24.4 (x2).  circumeundis Italiae urbibus ... noscendisque singularum causis:  to the purpose of the cities of Italy being visited and the cases of each individual (city) being enquired into.

h.  In the Ablative Case, qualifying a noun in the instrumental ablative (1):

13.6.  hostis mactandis: by victims being sacrificed.

i.  In the Ablative Case, qualifying a noun preceded by the preposition 'cum' (1):  

7.10.  cum manu haudquaquam contemnenda: with a force by no means to be despised.

j.  In the Ablative Case, qualifying a noun preceded by the preposition 'in' (7):

18.15.  in restituenda pugna:  during the battle being restored.

21.1.  in retinendis iis:  with regard to them being held back.

30.22.  in pace iugenda:  in a peace being made.

34.1.  in re gerenda:  in respect of the battle being fought.

35.10.  in pace impetranda:  in respect of peace being obtained.

38.7 (x2).  in comparanda deducendaque classe:  with regard to his fleet being made ready and being launched.

Epilogue.

As can be readily seen from the catalogue of 41 gerunds and 79 gerundives listed above, Livy makes a thorough and widespread use of these grammatical usages, which are so intrinsic to Latin literature, in Book XXX of his History. In the case of Gerunds, this usage is mainly restricted to objective genitives and instrumental ablatives, which are the two applications where the Gerund can take an object in classical Latin. His one exception to this general rule is highlighted in section A. 4 above.

As is usually the case with Latin authors, Livy's employment of the Gerundive is more common; indeed, there are approximately twice as many Gerundives as Gerunds in Book XXX. There are 29 instances of a Gerundive being used to denote necessity, obligation or propriety (i.e. "must", "ought", or "should"), the quintessential use of the Gerundive, although his use of the impersonal construction, so frequently used by many authors is restricted to only 6 cases. He makes particular use of the formula "ad" + noun + Gerundive to express purpose, which he uses 28 times, and the phrase "ad pacem petendam", i.e. "for the purpose of peace being sought", actually appears four times. Indeed, he makes widespread use of the Gerundive as an attributive adjective, i.e. where it is attached directly to the noun as opposed to being used predicatively as part of the complement of the verb "esse", "to be". In total the Gerundive appears 53 times in Book XXX as an attributive adjective. It is in these instances that the phenomenon of "Gerundive attraction" occurs, i.e. where the Gerundive, and the noun which it qualifies, takes the case that the Gerund would have had, if it had been, or could have been, used instead. In most of the instances where Livy uses the Gerundive, it appears in the Oblique Cases, and thus has no, or very little force of necessity, obligation or propriety. In such cases, when one is undertaking a literal translation, it is easiest to translate a Gerundive as though it were a Present Participle Passive, which usage indeed it seems to have had in early Latin (see section B. 3 above).  

NUNC EST BIBENDUM

"Nunc est bibendum", of which "Now it is time to drink" is but one of the many possible translations, is one of the most famous quotations from Latin literature. It comes from the first line of carmen XXXVII of Horace's Odes, Book I, a poem written to celebrate the news of the death of Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, in 30 B.C. Sabidius' purpose in this article is to analyse the grammatical significance of this short clause and, in particular to discuss whether 'bibendum' is a gerund or gerundive. 

In the sixth section of his article entitled "Gerunds and Gerundives", published on his blog on 6th March 2010, Sabidius highlighted the controversy that exists about whether it is gerunds or gerundives that are employed in contexts such as this one, where the verb involved is intransitive. It should be noted that the term "intransitive" here covers 1) verbs that can have no object at all, e.g. "curro", I run; 2) transitive verbs being used without an object, e.g. "bibo", I drink, in "Nunc est bibendum"; and 3) verbs that can govern a dative but not an accusative, e.g. "pareo", I obey. The former view that the impersonal construction to denote necessity, obligation or propriety, when applied to intransitive verbs, employs the gerund rather than the gerundive is difficult to maintain, because it involves using the nominative (and accusative in the case of indirect statement) when this usage does not otherwise appear, and also because there is no other instance where the gerund has the notions of necessity, obligation or propriety. On the other hand, the currently prevailing view that this construction involves the gerundive requires the acceptance that a passive verbal adjective, which is what a gerundive is, is possible in the case of intransitive verbs, which by their very nature cannot really have a passive voice, and also of seeing how such a passive adjective can be applicable to expressions such as  "Nunc est bibendum", where the existence or relevance of the passive voice is scarcely detectable. In order to investigate further the implications of this dilemma, the various possible translations of this clause and other similar ones are now considered.

Firstly, however, it may be instructive to look at the next part of this opening stanza to Ode XXXVII, the beginning of which reads: "Nunc est bibendum, nunc pede libero pulsanda tellus (sc. est)", which can be translated as "Now it is time to drink, now we should dance freely". From its ending there is no doubt that "pulsanda" is a gerundive, being used as a predicative adjective in the passive voice, and the literal meaning of this second clause is "The earth is meet-to-be-struck with a free foot". In this context "libero" means "unrestrained", or perhaps "free from the threat of slavery to Cleopatra". This clause is a good example of the use of the gerundive in the case of a transitive verb to denote necessity, etc. If, as many authorities have done, we see "bibendum" in "Nunc est bibendum" as a gerund it can be translated, without any need for a passive expression, simply as "drinking", and "Nunc est bibendum" as "Now there is drinking" or rather, if one uses the verb "sum" in a positive or emphatic sense, "Now it is time to drink", "Now there is time for drinking", or "Now there is drinking to be done". In practice, one of these variants is how this particular sentence is usually translated. However, none of these translations involves an expression of necessity or obligation, and indeed it is difficult to do this at all until a pronoun is added, in this case in the dative case. "Nunc est bibendum nobis" would then mean, "Now it is time for us to drink" or "There is drinking for us to do", with "nobis" as a dative of the agent or dative of interest. In both of these translations, however, the notion of necessity or obligation is marginal, but, if "bibendum" is a gerund, these translations are about as far as one can go to import such a meaning. 

If, on the other hand, one takes the view that "bibendum" is a gerundive being used as an example of the impersonal passive construction, then "bibendum" means "meet-to-be-drunk", or "needing to be drunk", and it is relatively straightforward to import the concept of necessity etc. into the clause "Nunc est bibendum". "Now there is a need to drink" is one possible translation, but there are many other ways in which these three Latin words can be translated into English, while highlighting the idea of necessity, etc. Possible variants include the following: "Now it is necessary to drink", "Now there is a need for drinking/ to drink", "Now there must be drinking", and "Now one must drink". It is worth noting here that the use of the impersonal pronoun "one",  in contexts where a specific personal pronoun is lacking, is a good way of translating such expressions.

At this point, however, it should be recognised that an unidentified personal pronoun should really be understood as the agent behind this exhortatory statement. So, "Nunc est bibendum nobis" would mean: "It is necessary for us to drink" or, more freely, "We must drink" or "We should drink." and, in practice, this is how such clauses, i.e. those involving expressions of necessity etc, in the case of intransitive verbs, are commonly rendered by translators. The difficulty that remains, however, is how it is possible to do justice to the passive nature of gerundives in instances such as "Nunc est bibendum". So, just as the use of a gerund makes it difficult to import the concept of necessity etc., the use of the gerundive makes it difficult to ignore the need for a literal translation to involve the passive voice. Therefore, "Nunc est bibendum" should really be, "Now it is necessary for it (i.e. drink) to be drunk". This is possible, albeit somewhat clumsy.

But, before we can accept that 'bibendum' really is a gerundive, we need to consider whether such an approach, which is designed to bring out the passive nature of gerundives, also works with regard to other intransitive verbs? Let us look at the two verbs used as examples above, i.e. "curro" and "pareo". If justice is to be done to the passive nature of these apparent gerundives, "Currendum est tibi " should therefore be translated as "It is necessary for the race to be run by you", or "There is running to be done by you"; and  "Mihi a te parendum est" as "It is necessary for obedience to be shown by you to me". These literal translations may seem rather contrived or periphrastic, and when actual translations are made it is common to use expressions in the active voice, i.e. "It is necessary for you to run" and "It is necessary for you to obey me." Nevertheless, it is important to recognise the passive basis of these phrases if the argument that words such as "bibendum" are gerundives is to be successfully maintained.

The literal translations of clauses using this construction can undoubtedly be very cumbersome, but the same is also the case with the impersonal passive construction, upon which it is based. An example of this is: "Caesari persuasum est", i.e. Caesar was persuaded, where the literal translation, "It was persuaded to Caesar", can scarcely be admitted as acceptable. "Persuasion is brought to Caesar" is a little better but still clumsy. Third person singular passive forms of intransitive verbs are used exceptionally in the case of the impersonal passive construction, and, if we decide that it is gerundives, not gerunds, that are being used in expressions such as "Nunc est bibendum", then we must regard a gerundive as an additional exceptional passive form in the case of intransitive verbs. This is, frankly, not very easy to accept, particularly since the gerundive of intransitive verbs does not appear in other contexts, and for the reasons given in the opening paragraph of this monograph, it is difficult to be entirely comfortable with either argument. Nevertheless, it is perhaps easier to accept that it is indeed the gerundive being used in this context, since gerunds do not otherwise appear in the nominative or have the force of necessity, etc.

The gerundive, if this is what it is, with the appropriate forms of the verb "sum" in the Second or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation is the most common way in classical Latin to express necessity, obligation or propriety, and the use of the impersonal passive construction with intransitive verbs in this context is particularly common, despite our difficulties of effecting a literal translation of it. Indeed, there are eleven instances of the gerundive being used impersonally to express necessity etc. in Book I of Caesar's "De Bello Gallico", and only four instances of it being used with transitive verbs as a predicative adjective for the same purpose. The use of the gerundive in these two similar but slightly different constructions is an example of the remarkable conciseness of which Latin is capable, but the uncertainty as to whether it is the gerund or gerundive being used when the verbs are intransitive emphasises how such conciseness can sometimes involve an uncertainty of grammatical interpretation.        

    

GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES

Introduction.

One of the more demanding aspects of Latin grammar is the usage of gerunds and gerundives. The purpose of this paper is to explain what they are, the difference between them, and how they are used in classical literature; once a list of exceptions has been compiled, the paper ends with a short but important list of rules for their use. This paper does not deal with how they are formed and declined. For this readers are referred to any standard Latin grammar book. For many of the examples and some of the analysis, the author is principally indebted to D.P.Simpson's "First Principles of Latin Prose", Longmans (1965). A gerund is a verbal noun, which in English is formed by adding "-ing" to the verb. Very similar to it in appearance in Latin, and possibly even the source of its derivation, is the gerundive, a verbal adjective, in the passive voice, but often equivalent in meaning to an active construction. Whereas the gerund is neuter in gender and is found only in singular forms, the gerundive is both singular and plural, and has the complete range of cases and genders. The gerund and gerundive can easily be confused because of their similarity in form, and this potential difficulty is perhaps increased by the manner in which they are used. Hence, even a relatively experienced Latin reader may experience some doubts from time to time, and may need to think hard before identifying which is which. This paper is dedicated to such a person.

The gerund in oblique cases.

In classical Latin the usage of the gerund is in fact relatively rare. It cannot be used in the nominative case, i.e. as the subject of a sentence, nor in the accusative as the direct object. When a verbal noun is sought in these circumstances, Latin uses the infinitive instead. Indeed, it is only found in the accusative case at all, when it follows the preposition "ad" to express purpose, i.e. as an alternative to final clauses ("ut" and the subjunctive). In relation to the cases, usages of the gerund are as follows: in the accusative: after "ad" with the meaning of purpose, as an alternative to final clauses, e.g. ad fodiendum, with a view to digging; in the genitive: as an objective genitive following abstract nouns and certain adjectives which are followed by the genitive, e.g. ars fodiendi, the art of digging, peritus fodiendi, skilled in digging; in the dative: following verbs which take the dative, e.g. fodiendo studet, he is keen on digging, operam dat legendo, he gives attention to reading; and in the ablative: as an instrumental ablative. e.g. summa cura fodiendo thesaurus invenit, by digging carefully he found the treasure. As the last example shows, an adverb or adverbial phrase (but never an adjective) may be added to a gerund to qualify its meaning. Deponent verbs also have gerunds which are formed as in the case of other verbs, and used in the same way, e.g. conando effecit, he managed (it) by trying.

Gerundive to express obligation, necessity or propriety.

In the nominative case, the gerundive carries an idea of obligation, necessity or propriety, passively expressed, and does not just state a simple fact. So "amandus" means "fit to be loved" or "worthy to be loved", denoting propriety, "needing to be loved", denoting necessity, or "deserving to be loved", denoting obligation. In the case of transitive verbs (i.e. verbs which take an object), it has its clearest use in the sense of obligation or necessity when it is the complement of the copulative verb, "sum". e.g. amanda est felis mea, my cat ought to be loved. In this context, it is usually to be found in the nominative case but where it is the subject of an indirect statement it will be in the accusative. e.g. credo spernendas esse ceteras feles, I believe that other cats ought to be despised. The use of the gerundive to express obligation, necessity or propriety is common in Latin, and is used as an alternative to the verbs "debeo", I owe or ought, and the impersonal verbs "oportet", it behoves and "decet", it is right. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with the forms of "esse" in the Second (or passive) Periphrastic Conjugation, e.g. "amandus sum", I am to be loved, I must be loved. 

The gerundive in oblique case usage.

As a gerundive passes down through the oblique cases, the force of obligation, necessity or obligation, so strong in the nominative, or accusative (when the subject of indirect statement), ceases to exist at all, or is only to be hinted at. Indeed, its meaning draws close to that of a present participle passive. Its main usages here are as follows: accusative: following "ad" meaning purpose, but where there is a direct object following, e.g. ad pacem faciendam, with a view to peace being made; genitive: the same usages as the gerund but where there is a direct object following, e.g. pacis faciendae causa, for the sake of peace being made; dative: after verbs taking the dative, and to show purpose, e.g. rationi reddendae student, they are keen on account being given, decemviros legibus scribendis creaverunt, the ten men were appointed in order  that the laws be written; ablative: instrumentally, but instead of the gerund when the verb had a direct object, and following prepositions which take that case, e.g. corpore exercendo validior fies, you will become stronger by your body being exercised, de vaccis emendis non intellegis, you do not understand about cows being bought. As these examples show, the gerundive is passive but it is equivalent in meaning to an expression of the phrases concerned in an active form.

Gerundive attraction.

In all the above examples where a gerundive is used, the process of gerundive attraction has occurred. This means that while a gerund could theoretically have been used, Latin either prefers or requires a gerundive, perhaps because it was thought to be a more concrete form of expression. Because of the possibility of confusing gerunds and gerundives in translation, it is important to understand what gerundive attraction means. In these constructions the gerundive is used in agreement with the noun, and the whole phrase, including the gerundive is placed in the case in which the gerund would have been. Where the verb is of the standard transitive type and governs a direct object in the accusative case, the gerundive is always used in classical Latin prose, and the dative of the gerund cannot be used to show purpose; and even where a choice is possible, Latin almost always prefers the gerundive construction. In practice, when translating Latin into English we almost always reverse the gerundive construction into the use of a gerund: for instance, "for the sake of peace being made" usually becomes "for the sake of making peace". Such a reversal from a passive to an active phrase in the course of translation is a further reason for confusing gerund and gerundive, especially, when both are possible grammatically.

Gerundives with intransitive verbs.

It is here that there is most the most uncertainty. Because intransitive verbs lack a passive voice, one would not expect a gerundive, which is after all a passive adjective, to be available to them. And, indeed, in later oblique case usage (i.e. genitive, dative, ablative) the gerundive is not generally found with intransitive verbs. However, when it comes to the nominative and, in the case of indirect statement, the accusative, a gerundive of intransitive verbs is also used to express obligation, necessity or propriety. Although the verbs concerned have no passive voice, a gerundive is formed, exceptionally, for this purpose, as in the case of the impersonal passive construction, on which it is based, e.g. currendum est, one must run. In such cases the gerundive is often accompanied by a dative of the agent or where the gerundive comes from a verb taking the dative, by "a/ab" and the ablative, e.g. currendum est mihi, I must run, tibi a me parendum est, I must obey you. In past years, standard Latin grammar books did not in fact classify this use of the gerundive as a gerundive at all, but saw it rather as the nominative of the gerund, with which it is identical. The currently prevailing view is suggested by the fact that the gerund does not appear elsewhere in the nominative, and because in no other case does the gerund have the remotest sense of obligation or necessity. On the other hand, in support of the old view, there is often no way in which gerundives used in this impersonal way can be expressed in a passive form. In practice, this controversy does not affect composition, and scarcely translation, of Latin, but it certainly demonstrates the ease with which gerunds and gerundives can be confused.

Exceptions and particular instances.

Perhaps the use of gerundives to express obligation or necessity in the case of intransitive verbs is one of these. Others are set out below.

1. The gerundive is used with some verbs of giving, eg. do, trado, and of seeing to, e.g. curo, to indicate that something is caused to be done. e.g. opus faciendum curavi, I saw to the work being done; libri legendi tibi dabuntur, books will be given to you to read.

2. Although the gerund in the accusative is only usually found after the preposition "ad", it is occasionally found also following "ob" and "inter".

3. When the genitive plural of a personal pronoun ends in "i", a gerundive is put into the genitive singular to agree with it, e.g. nostri adiuvandi causa (NOT nostri adiuvandorum causa), for the sake of helping us.

4. In the three cases, genitive, dative and ablative, a gerund may be used after all to govern as a direct object either a neuter pronoun or a neuter adjective because, if a gerundive were used, the thing concerned would otherwise no longer be recognised as neuter, e.g. hoc videndi causa (NOT huius videndi causa), for the sake of seeing this.

5. Where the repetition of genitive plurals would make use of the gerundive clumsy, the gerund is used instead. e.g. Romanos videndi causa (NOT Romanorum videndorum causa), for the sake of seeing the Romans.

6. The gerund is very occasionally found after prepositions taking the ablative,e.g. ab, de, ex, in. But neither gerund nor gerundive are ever to be found following "sine", without.

7. A gerund is also found instead of a gerundive to avoid complication where there are objects of different genders. e.g. facultas viros et feminas occidendi, the chance of killing men and women.

8. Several deponent verbs governing the ablative case have gerundives which may be used impersonally. e.g. gladiis est utendum, one must use swords, but because such verbs are sometimes regarded as transitive verbs, i.e. taking a direct object, they can sometimes be used as in the following ablative absolute, vi utenda, by force being used.

Short summary of the rules for gerunds and gerundives.

1. The gerund is a verbal neuter noun, is active, and is declined in the singular only. It is not found in the nominative, nor in the accusative as a direct object or the subject of indirect statement. Its use is therefore relatively rare.

2. The gerundive is a verbal adjective, passive in form, and is declined in all cases and genders, both in singular and plural.

3. In the nominative and accusative (when the subject of indirect statement), the gerundive expresses the ideas of obligation, necessity or propriety. This sense disappears, or becomes much less strong, in the other cases.

4. The gerund can be used where there is no direct object, but where there is a transitive verb with a direct object, the gerundive is almost always used.

5. The gerundive should be used to avoid a direct object following the dative of a gerund, or the accusative or ablative of the gerund after a preposition, and, of the two, only a gerundive can be used to show purpose.

6. Where a choice is possible, e.g. as a genitive following "causa" or as an instrumental ablative, in cases where there is a direct object involved, the gerundive is preferred in classical Latin.