HOMER: ILIAD BOOK III: TRUCE AND DUEL

Introduction.

Sabidius has previously translated Book I of the "Iliad" (20th March 2010) and Book VI (5th April 2012), and also on this blog is an extract from Book XVI (30th August 2010). Scanning, reading and then translating Homer's verse is invariably a great pleasure, and this particular book is no exception. After the quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon in Book I, and the celebrated catalogue of ships in Book II, in which the various Greek contingents are listed, accompanied by a thumb-nail sketch of their leaders, Book III involves a brief break in the action. A duel is arranged by Hector and Agamemnon to enable the principal characters in the feud between the Trojans and the Greeks, namely the seducer Paris and the wronged husband Menelaus, to fight a duel, with Helen as the prize. This duel should have brought the war to an early end, but in the event it solves nothing, because, when Menelaus is on the verge of killing Paris, the latter is secretly whisked away by his champion, the goddess Aphrodite. Highlights of the book are the scene known as the "Teichoskopia" (the View from the Wall), in which Helen identifies for the benefit of Priam, the King of Troy, the main leaders of the Greeks, namely Agamemnon, Odysseus and Ajax, and the evident conflict in the heart of Helen, who is torn between guilt concerning her adulterous conduct and her sexual attraction towards Paris.

As he has done with a number of his previous translations of Homer, Sabidius has put into italics sentences or sections which have been repeated almost word for word. In this book, there are the following formulaic repetitions: ll. 69-73 are repeated in ll. 90-94, ll. 73-75 in ll. 256-258, l. 262 in l. 312, l. 276 in l. 320, ll. 286-287 in ll. 459-460, and l. 347 in l. 356.

For further details about translating Homer, readers are recommended to look again at the introduction to Sabidius' translation of Book VI, and also to his introduction to the translation of Book IX of the "Odyssey" (20th August 2011).  When one has become used to the usages relating to the epic dialects (Aeolic and Old Ionic), and to the uncontracted forms of many words, Homer's verse is not difficult to translate, although it does feature a large number of words, particularly verbs, that do not appear in the Attic Greek associated with Thucydides, Xenophon and Plato.

The text for this translation is "Homer: Iliad III", edited with introduction, notes and vocabulary by J.T.Hooker, Bristol Classical Press, 1979. In his translation, Sabidius has followed the sub-divisions in this text and has utilised the short titles given to each sub-section. Apart from the excellent notes attached to Hooker's text, Sabidius has made use of the notes to the texts of Homer's "Iliad Books I-III", edited by Thomas D. Seymour, Ginn and Company, Boston, 1891, and of "Selections from Homer's Iliad", edited by Allen Rogers Benner, Irvington Publishers Inc., New York, 1903. It is interesting how often these experts have different grammatical explanations or interpretations of Homer's words.

Lines 1-14.  The Greeks and Trojans advance to battle.

Now, when they were marshalled, each (contingent) with its own captain, the Trojans advance (lit.come on) with clamour and outcry like birds, just as the clamour of cranes rises below the sky (lit. in the sky, in front), and, when they thus escape the winter and its portentous rainfall, they fly with cries (lit. clamour) towards the currents of Ocean, bearing slaughter and death to Pygmy men; and so early in the morning they offer their destructive strife; but the others, the Achaeans, advance (lit. come on) in silence, breathing forth determination (lit. might), furiously eager in their hearts to assist one another.

As the South Wind sheds a mist upon the peaks of a mountain, (something) not at all welcome to shepherds, but better than night to a thief, and one sees (only) so far as one throws a stone, so then an eddying dust-cloud arose from under their feet as they advanced (lit. from under the feet of those advancing); and very quickly did they speed across (lit. traverse) the plain. 

Lines 15-37.  The challenge by Paris is accepted by Menelaus. 

Now when they were indeed come near, advancing (as they were) against one another, godlike Alexander (i.e. Paris) stood forth as a champion in front of the Trojans, bearing on his shoulders a leopard-skin and his curved bow and his sword; on the other hand, brandishing two spears tipped (lit. helmeted) with bronze, he kept on challenging all the best of the Argives to fight (with him) hand-to-hand in dread combat.

But when Menelaus, dear to Ares, became aware of him advancing in front of the assembled throng with long strides (lit. striding with long steps), he rejoices like a lion coming by chance upon a large carcase, finding either a horned deer or a wild goat, (when he is) starving. For he devours (it) eagerly, even if swift dogs and strong young men may harry him. So Menelaus was glad, seeing godlike Alexander with his own eyes; for he supposed he had avenged himself on the wrong-doer; and forthwith he jumped in (lit. with) his armour from his chariot on to the ground.

But, when godlike Alexander was thus aware of him as he appeared (lit. appearing) among the champions, his heart was shattered (lit. he was shattered in respect of his own heart), and he shrank back into the company of his companions, avoiding death. And, just as when a man, seeing a snake in the glen of a mountain, shrinks back (in terror), and trembling takes hold of his knees (lit. limbs beneath [him]), and he withdraws back (again) and pallor seizes his cheeks (lit. seizes him in respect of his cheeks), thus did godlike Alexander, fearing the son of Atreus, sink back again into the throng of the courageous Trojans.

Lines 38-75.  Under Hector's reproaches, Paris undertakes to fight Menelaus for Helen.   

But Hector, seeing him, chid (him) with shaming words:

"Evil Paris, most fair in respect of your appearance, mad for women, seducer (that you are), would that you were unborn or (lit. and) had perished unmarried. I should prefer (lit. wish) even this, and it would have been far better than for you to be such a disgrace and an object of others' suspicion. In truth, methinks the long-haired Achaeans (lit. the Achaeans wearing their hair long in respect of their heads) are rejoicing, thinking that a prince is our champion because he has a fair form (lit. a fair form [is] upon [him]), but there is no strength in his heart nor any courage. Indeed, (was it) being such a man as this that, sailing over the open sea in your sea-going ships, assembling your trusty comrades (and) mixing with alien people, you brought back a comely woman from a distant land, the daughter of spear-wielding men, but to your father and your city and your people a great bane, on the one hand a delight to your foes but on the other hand a humiliation to yourself? Would you not indeed stand against Menelaus, beloved of Ares? You would learn what sort of a man (he is whose) ripe young (lit. strong) bride you have (to wife); your lyre and the gifts of Aphrodite, both your locks and your appearance, would not avail you, whenever you are mingled with (lit. in) the dust. But the Trojans (are) very cowardly; indeed, you would (else) by now have been clothed in a stone tunic on account of the very great evils you have wrought.

And in turn godlike Alexander addressed him (thus):

"Hector, since you have chided me duly (lit. according to my due) and not unfairly (lit. beyond my due), (your heart is like an unyielding axe, which is driven through the trunk of a tree by a man, who then shapes a ship's timber with his skill, and it increases the man's force; so in your breast there is an undaunted heart (lit. mind), do not reproach me with the lovely gifts of golden Aphrodite. (For,) I would have you know, the glorious gifts of the gods are not to be cast off as worthless; whatever things (they may be) they give (them to us) of their own accord, and no one could take (them) by his own will. But now, if you want me to go to war and fight, bid the rest of the  Trojans and all the Achaeans to sit down, but bring me and Menelaus, beloved of Ares, together in the midst (of the two armies) to fight for (lit. about) Helen and all of her treasure; then whichever of us two shall gain the victory and be the better man, let him, taking absolutely all of her treasure, lead (it) and the woman to his home. But (you), the rest (of the Trojans), cutting (the throats of the animals as witnesses to) friendship and trustworthy oaths, may you continue to dwell in fertile Troy, but those (the Achaeans), let them go back to Argos, rich in horses, and Achaea of the beautiful women."

Lines 76-120.  Hector proposes a duel to the Greeks and Menelaus agrees; Priam is summoned to preside at the oath-taking. 

Thus he spoke, and then Hector rejoiced greatly, hearing these words, and so, going into the midst (of the armies), he kept back the battalions of the Trojans, taking hold of his spear by the middle; and they all were seated. But the long-haired Achaeans (lit. the Achaeans wearing their hair long in respect of their heads) began to shoot at him, (and) aiming both with arrows and with stones they tried to hit (him); but Agamemnon, the king of men, shouted loudly: "Hold on, (you) Argives, do not shoot (any more) (you) youths of the Achaeans: for Hector of the flashing helmet is set to say some words (to us)."

Thus he spoke, and they abstained from battle and became eagerly silent; then Hector spoke out between both armies: "Hear from me, Trojans and (you) well-greaved Achaeans, the proposition of Alexander, on account of whom this dispute arose. He proposes that the other Trojans and all the Achaeans should lay aside their fine armour upon the bounteous earth, and that he himself and Menelaus, dear to Ares, should fight alone in the midst (of us) for (lit. about) Helen and all of her treasure. Then, whichever of the two men shall gain the victory and be the better man, let him, taking absolutely all of her treasure, lead (it) and the woman to his home. But, (as to) the rest (of us), let us cut (the throats of the animals as witnesses to) friendship and trustworthy oaths." 

Thus he spoke, and so they all became hushed in silence; then among them spoke Menelaus, good at the war-cry, as well: "Listen to me now also; for grief has come especially to me. I think that Argives and Trojans should now be separated, since you have suffered many ills on account of my quarrel and because of Alexander's beginning (of it); and to whichever of us death and fate have been prepared, let him lie dead, but may the rest of you be parted speedily. But bring two lambs, one a white male, and the other a black female for both Earth and Sun; and we shall bring another for Zeus. And fetch (here) mighty (lit. the might of) Priam, so that he himself may cut (the throats of the victims as witnesses to) the oaths, as his sons are arrogant and faithless, lest anyone by his transgression should spoil the oaths of Zeus. The hearts of younger men are ever unstable: but, in whatever an old man takes part, he looks forwards and backwards at the same time, so that by far the best things happen for (lit. amongst) both sides.

Thus he spoke, and both the Achaeans and the Trojans were glad, hoping to free themselves from woeful war. And so they kept their chariots in ranks and stepped forth themselves, and stripped off their (suits of) armour; these they laid upon the ground close to one another, and (only) a little ground was around (each suit of armour); and Hector sent two heralds quickly to the city both to bring the lambs and to summon Priam; moreover, the lord Agamemnon sent forth Talthybius to go to the hollow ships, and bade him to bring a lamb; and so he did not disobey godlike Agamemnon.

Lines 121-160.  Iris visits Troy and tells Helen of the impending duel; Helen goes out and arouses the admiration of the old men.

But Iris went (as) a messenger to white-armed Helen, appearing in the likeness of her husband's sister, the wife of Antenor's son, whom Antenor's son, the lord Helicaon, had (as his wife), Laodice, the comeliest (lit. the best in respect of her appearance) of the daughters of Priam. And she found her (i.e. Helen) in her chamber; she was weaving a great web, a purple double-folded (cloak), and she was weaving therein many battles of the horse-taming Trojans and the bronze-coated Achaeans, which for her sake they had endured at the hands (lit. by the hand-palms) of Ares. And swift-footed Iris (lit. Iris swift in respect of her feet), standing nearby, addressed (her thus): "Come hither, dear lady, so that you may see the wondrous deeds both of the horse-taming Trojans and of the bronze-coated Achaeans; those who formerly waged (lit. brought) lamentable warfare against each another on the plain, being intent upon deadly battle, are now resting (lit. sitting) in silence, and the fighting has ceased, (with them) leaning upon their shields, and their long spears are stuck beside (them). But Alexander and Menelaus, dear to Ares, will do battle with their long spears concerning you; and to him, whoever it is, gaining the victory, you will be called his dear wife."

Thus speaking, the goddess put into her heart a sweet longing for her former husband, her city and her parents (i.e. Tyndareus and Leda); and straightway, covering herself with a white linen (veil), she hastened from her chamber, shedding round tears, not alone, (as) at least two handmaids followed her at the same time as well, Aethra, the daughter of Pittheus, and ox-eyed Clymene; and soon then they came to the place where the Scaean gates were.

Now the elders of the people were sitting also at the Scaean gates around Priam, (namely) Panthous and Thymoetes, Lampus and Clytius and Hicetaon, the scion of Ares, and Ucalegon and Antenor, both wise men, (these men) having ceased from battle because of old age, but excellent speakers, like cicadas, which sitting upon a tree in a wood send forth their lily-like voice. Such then (were they) the leaders of the Trojans (who) sat upon the wall. And when they saw Helen coming to the wall, they spoke winged words softly to one another: "It is no cause for blame that the Trojans and the well-greaved Achaeans should suffer griefs for a long time for such a woman as this; with regard to her countenance she is terribly like the immortal goddesses; but even so, although she is (lit. being) such a one, let her depart in the ships, and not be left behind (as) a bane to us and to our children."

Lines 161-170.  The Teichoskopia, or View from the Wall: Priam asks Helen to identify the Greek heroes. 

So then they spoke, but Priam summoned Helen with his voice: "Come hither, and sit (lit. coming hither, sit) beside me, dear child, so that you may see your former husband, your kinsmen and your friends (to me you are not to blame in any way, at this time to my mind the gods are to blame), and so that you can tell me the name of this mighty man, whoever is this valiant and tall Achaean man. In truth, I'll have you know, there are others taller even by a head, but I have not yet seen with my own eyes so handsome a man, nor (one) so majestic; for he is like a warrior king."

Lines 171-202.  Helen identifies Agamemnon and Odysseus.   

Then Helen, radiant among women, answered him with these words: "Dear father-in-law, you are in my eyes revered and dread; would that evil death had been my choice (lit. had pleased me), when I followed your son hither, leaving my bridal-chamber, my kinsfolk (i.e. her brothers Castor and Polydeuces especially), my beloved daughter (i.e. Hermione) and my lovely companions. But this (i.e. her death) did not come about; for that (reason) I pine away (lit. melt) weeping. But I shall tell you that thing which you enquire and ask of me: yonder man (is) the son of Atreus, wide-ruling Agamemnon, both a noble king and a mighty spearman; on the other hand he was the brother-in -law of myself, bitch (that I am), if such he ever was."

Thus she spoke, and the old man wondered at him, and said: "O blessed son of Atreus, child of fortune, god-favoured (one), many indeed then are the sons of the Achaeans (who are) subject to you. Once before now I also travelled to Phrygia, rich in vines, where I saw very many Phrygian warriors with swift horses, the people of Otreus and godlike Mygdon, who were at that time encamped beside the banks of the Sangarius. For I too, being their ally, was numbered among them on that day when the Amazons came, a match for men (indeed); but not even they were so many as these bright-eyed Achaeans."

Then, seeing Odysseus next, the old man enquired: "Come (now and) tell me also of yonder man, dear child, whoever is he; (he is) smaller by a head than Agamemnon, son of Atreus, but, to look upon, broader of shoulder and of chest. His armour lies upon the bounteous earth, but he himself approaches the ranks of warriors like a ram; I for my part liken him to a fleecy ram that paces through a great flock of white ewes."

Then, Helen, sprung from Zeus, answered him (thus): "This again (is) Laertes' son, the wily Odysseus, who was reared in the land of Ithaca, even though it is (lit. being) rocky, (and) knowing (as he does) all manner of tricks and cunning plans."

Lines 203-224.  Antenor recalls the embassy of Odysseus and Menelaus to Troy.

Then, in turn, the wise Antenor spoke to her in answer: "O lady, this word you have spoken (is) indeed very true; for godlike Odysseus came here also once before, with Menelaus, dear to Ares, (as) an envoy on account of you; and I received and welcomed them in my hall, and I came to know (lit. learned) the stature of them both and their cunning devices. But when indeed they mingled with (lit. were mixed among) the Trojans (who had been) gathered together, when they were (lit. with them) both standing, Menelaus overtopped (him) with (lit. in respect of) his broad shoulders, but with them both being seated Odysseus was the more majestic; but when they began to weave their words and plans before everyone, then in truth Menelaus spoke fluently, a few (words) indeed, but very clearly, since (he was) not wordy nor rambling, even if he was the younger (lit. the later by birth). But, indeed, whenever the wily Odysseus sprang up, he would stand (there) and would keep looking down, fixing his eyes on the ground, and he would move (lit. distribute) the (speaker's) staff neither backwards nor forwards, but would hold (it) stiffly like an ignorant man; you would have thought he was some surly (fellow) and utterly stupid. But, whenever he produced (lit. sent out) his great voice from his chest, and words like wintry snowflakes, no other mortal man could have vied with Odysseus; then did we not marvel so (much as before), when we saw (lit. seeing) Odysseus' manner (lit. appearance).

Lines 225-244.  Helen identifies Ajax and Idomeneus, but cannot see her brothers. 

Next the old man, seeing Ajax, enquired for the third time (thus): "So who (is) this other Achaean warrior, both valiant and tall, outstanding among the Argives in respect of both his head and his shoulders."

Then long-robed Helen, radiant among women, answered (him): "This is mighty Ajax, the bulwark of the Achaeans; and Idomeneus is standing on the other side (of him), like a god among the Cretans, and the leaders of the Cretans are gathered around him. Menelaus, dear to Ares, often received him as a guest in our house, when he came from Crete. And now I see all the rest of the bright-eyed Achaeans, whom I could recognise (lit. well know) and tell their names; but I cannot see two of the marshals of the host, Castor, tamer of horses, and Polydeuces, the good boxer (lit. good with the fist), my own brothers, whom one mother bore along with me. Either they did not follow (the host) from lovely Lacedaemon, or they followed (it) hither in their sea-going ships, but are not willing to enter the battle of warriors, fearing the shameful deeds and reproaches which belong to me (lit. which are mine)."

Thus she spoke, but the life-giving earth already held them fast there in Lacedaemon, in their own native land.

Lines 245-259. Heralds call upon Priam to participate in the oath. 

Then the heralds bore through the city the trustworthy (pledges of) the oaths of the gods, two lambs and heart-warming wine, the fruit of the earth, in a goat-skin bottle; and the herald Idaeus bore a gleaming mixing-bowl and golden cups; and coming up to stand beside the old man, he roused (him) with these words: "Arise, son of Laomedon, the chieftains of both the horse-rearing Trojans and the bronze-coated Achaeans are summoning (you) to go down to the plain, so that you may cut (the throats of the animals as witnesses to)  trustworthy oaths. Moreover, Alexander and Menelaus, dear to Ares, will do battle with their long spears  about the woman; and whichever (of the two) shall gain the victory, let the woman and her treasure follow (him); but (we) the rest (of the Trojans), cutting (the throats of the animals as witnesses to) friendship and trustworthy oaths, may we continue to dwell in fertile Troy, but those (the Achaeans)  will depart to Argos, rich in horses, and to Achaea of the beautiful women."

Lines 259-302.  Priam and Agamemnon swear that Helen shall belong to the victor in the duel.   

Thus he spoke, and the old man shuddered but bade his attendants yoke the horses, and they speedily obeyed. And then Priam mounted up (into his chariot) and drew back the reins tightly; and beside him Antenor mounted the very beautiful chariot; then the two of them guided (lit. held [on course]) their swift horses through the Scaean (gates) to the plain.

But, when they came to the Trojans and the Achaeans, alighting from the chariot on to the bounteous earth, they strode into the midst of the Trojans and the Achaeans. Then straightway rose up Agamemnon, king of men, and the wily Odysseus (sprang) up; and the noble heralds brought together (the pledges) of the trustworthy oaths of the gods, and mingled the wine in the mixing bowl, and poured water over the king's hands. Then, the son of Atreus, drawing forth with his hand the knife, which always hung (lit. was always suspended) beside his sword's great scabbard, cut hair from the heads of the lambs; and then the heralds distributed (this) to the chieftains of the Trojans and the Achaeans. Then, in their midst, the son of Atreus, lifting up his hands, prayed loudly (thus): "Father Zeus, ruling from Ida, most glorious, most great, and (you) Sun, who observes all things and sees all things, and (you) rivers, and (you) earth, and (you two) (i.e. Hades and Persephone) that punish dead men below, such as may have sworn falsely; be you witnesses and watch over trustworthy oaths. If Alexander shall slay Menelaus, then let him keep Helen and all her treasure, and we shall depart in our sea-going ships; but if fair-haired Menelaus shall slay Alexander, then shall the Trojans give back Helen and all her treasure, and pay to the Argives whatever recompense as it seems fitting (to pay), even such as shall be remembered among men yet to come (lit. yet to be). But if Priam and the sons of Priam are not willing to pay me recompense, when Alexander falls (lit. with Alexander falling), then I for my part shall fight on for the sake of recompense, remaining here until I reach an end of the war."

He spoke, and slit the throats of the lambs with the pitiless bronze; and then he laid them on the ground, gasping (and) failing of breath; for the bronze had taken away their strength. Then, drawing wine from the mixing-bowl into the cups, they poured (it) forth (on to the ground), and prayed to the ever-living gods; then one of the Achaeans and the Trojans spoke thus: "Zeus, most glorious, most great, and (you) other immortal gods, whichever of the two shall first break (lit. work harm against) the oaths, may their brains flow thus on to the ground like this wine, theirs and their children's, and may their wives have intercourse with other men."

Thus they spoke, but the son of Cronus (i.e. Zeus) had not yet granted them fulfilment.

Lines 303-323.  Priam returns to Troy; Hector and Odysseus measure out a space for the duel. 

Then, in the midst of them, Priam, the son of Dardanus spoke these words: "Hearken unto me, (you) Trojans and well-greaved Achaeans; in truth I shall be going back to windy Ilium, since I shall not ever endure to behold with my own eyes my dear son fighting with Menelaus, dear to Ares; Zeus, I suppose, knows this, and the other immortal gods (too), for which of the two the doom of death is fated."

Thus spoke the godlike man, and he put the lambs in his chariot, and then mounted (it) himself and drew back the reins tightly; and beside him Antenor mounted the very beautiful chariot. So the two departed, going back to Troy; but Hector, Priam's son, and the godlike Odysseus firstly measured out a space, and then, taking lots, they shook them in a helmet made of bronze (to see) which of the two should discharge his bronze(-tipped) spear first (lit. before [the other]). And the host prayed and raised their hands to the gods; then one of the Achaeans and the Trojans spoke thus: "Father Zeus, ruling from Ida, most glorious. most great, whichever of the two placed these troubles upon both peoples, grant that he, having perished, may go into the house of Hades, and that to us there may in turn be friendship and trustworthy oaths.

Lines 324-339.  Paris and Menelaus arm themselves. 

So they spoke thus, and great Hector of the flashing helmet shook (the lots), looking away (lit. backwards); and straightway the lot of Paris leapt out. Then the (armies) sat in rows (lit. in accordance with ranks), where each man's high stepping horses and richly ornamented armour were placed; but he, the godlike Alexander, the husband of fair-tressed Helen, put fine armour about his shoulders. Firstly, he placed beautiful greaves, fitted with silver ankle-pieces, around his legs; next in turn, he donned around his chest a corselet belonging only to his brother Lycaon; and he fitted (it) to himself. And about his shoulders he slung  his silver-studded sword of bronze, and then his great and massive shield; and upon his mighty head he placed a well-wrought helmet with a crest of horse-hair; and the crest nodded fearfully from above; then he took up his sturdy spear, which fitted his grasp (lit. hand-palm). And thus the warlike Menelaus donned his armour in like manner.

Lines 340-382.  Menelaus has the better of Paris in the fight and is about to kill him, when Aphrodite intervenes and spirits Paris back to Troy.

But when they had armed themselves on either side of the throng, they strode into the midst of the Trojans and the Achaeans, glaring terribly (at each other); and amazement took hold of the onlookers, both the horse-taming Trojans and the well-greaved Achaeans. And they stood close at hand in the measured space, brandishing their spears in fury at each other. Then, Alexander despatched his long spear and  it smote upon the son of Atreus' round shield (lit. shield [which was] equal on all sides), but the bronze (spear) did not break through, but its point was bent back on the stout shield; and he, Atreus' son, Menelaus, raised himself to hurl (lit. arose with) his spear, uttering a prayer to Father Zeus: "Lord Zeus, grant that I may take vengeance on (him) who, (though) unprovoked, did me wrong, (even) godlike Alexander, and may you subdue (him) beneath my hands, so that many a one, even among men of a later generation, may shudder to do evil to his host, who proffers (him) hospitality."

And so, holding his long spear aloft, he despatched (it), and it smote upon the son of Priam's round shield (lit. shield [which was] equal on all sides); the mighty spear went thorough the bright shield, and forced its way (lit. was thrust) through the richly ornamented corselet. And the spear cut through his tunic, straight on beside the flank of his body; but he twisted (lit. lent) aside and avoided black death. Then, the son of Atreus, drawing his silver-studded sword (and) raising (his arm) on high, struck the horn of his helmet. But around it, it broke into three or (lit. and) four pieces, and fell from his hand. Then, the son of Atreus, glancing at the broad heavens, cried out (thus): "Father Zeus, no (lit. not any) other god is more deadly than you; verily, I thought that I was avenging myself on Alexander on account of his wrong-doing (towards me); but now my sword is broken in my hands and my spear has flown fruitlessly from my grasp (lit. hand-palm), and I have not struck him.

He spoke, and, springing upon (him) he seized his helmet with the crest of horse-hair and twisting (him) about he began to drag (him) towards the well-greaved Achaeans; and the well-stitched thong beneath his soft throat, which had been stretched beneath his chin (as) a strap for his helmet, began to choke him. And now he would have dragged (him) away and won unspeakable glory, if Aphrodite, the daughter of Zeus, had not quickly noticed (what was happening), (she) who broke for him the thong (made of) an ox slain with force. And at the same time the helmet came away empty in his sturdy hand; whirling it, the warrior prince then tossed (it) amongst the well-greaved Achaeans, and his trusty comrades carried (it) off, but he sprung back (at him), eager to slay (him) with his bronze spear; but Aphrodite snatched him away very easily, as a goddess (may), and shrouded (him) in thick mist, and sat him down in his fragrant sweetly-scented chamber.

Lines 383-420.  Aphrodite tells Helen to go to Paris; Helen at first resists, but is overborne by the anger of the goddess. 

And straightway she went herself to summon Helen ; and she met with her on the high tower, and the Trojan women were around (her) in large numbers; and grasping with her hand her fragrant robe, she shook (lit. plucked) (it), and addressed her in the likeness of an ancient dame, a wool-worker, who used to comb fine wool for her (when she was) living in Lacedaemon, and she loved her particularly; appearing in the likeness of this woman, radiant Aphrodite addressed her (thus): "Come hither, Alexander is calling you to go back home. There (is) he in his chamber and on his carved bed, gleaming with beauty and in his (fair) raiment; nor would you think that he had come (there) having been fighting with a man, but that he was going to a dance, or that he was sitting there, having just now ceased from the dance."

Thus she spoke, and aroused anger (lit. stirred the heart) in her breast: and when she noticed the very beautiful neck of the goddess, her lovely breasts, and her flashing eyes, then she was amazed, and spoke these words and addressed her (thus): "Strange goddess, why do you wish to deceive me in this way? Verily, you will lead me further to some place or other among the well-populated cities of Phrygia or of lovely Maeonia, if there too (is) someone among mortal men dear to you, since Menelaus, having defeated godlike Alexander, wishes to lead hateful me to his house; therefore you have now come here full of deceitful intention. (So) go and (lit. going) sit beside him, and renounce the ways of the gods, nor should you return any more to Olympus on your feet, but ever endure woe concerning that man and watch over him, until such time as he makes you his wife or his slave. But thither I shall not go (for it would be a shameful thing) in order to share (lit. prepare) that man's bed; for all the Trojan women will blame me hereafter; and I have countless griefs in my heart."

Then, roused to anger, radiant Aphrodite addressed her (thus): "Do not provoke me, (you) rash woman, lest, waxing wrathful, I desert you, and so hate you bitterly, as much as I have until now loved (you) furiously, and (lest) I devise grievous hatreds between (lit. in the midst of) both sides, Trojans and Danaans (alike), and you perish by (lit. in respect of) an evil fate."

Thus she spoke, and Helen, born of Zeus, was afraid, and she went in silence, wrapped in (lit. held fast by) her bright shining mantle, and she escaped the notice of all the Trojan women; and her protecting goddess led the way.

Lines 421-447.  Paris turns aside Helen's reproaches and takes her to bed. 

Now when they came to the very beautiful palace of Alexander, then the handmaids turned to their tasks at once, but she, queen among women, went to her high-roofed chamber. And then the goddess, laughter-loving Aphrodite, taking up a stool (lit. a chariot board) for her (and) carrying (it), put (it) down opposite Alexander; thereupon Helen, the daughter of aegis-bearing Zeus, sat down, turning her eyes away (lit. back), and she upbraided her husband with these words: "You have come from the battle-field; oh would that you had perished there, conquered by the mighty warrior who was my former husband. Previously indeed you used to boast that you were stronger than Menelaus, dear to Ares, in the might of (lit. in your might and) your hand and spear; but go now to challenge Menelaus, dear to Ares, to do battle (with you) again man-to-man; but I, for my part, bid (you) to refrain, and not to do battle with fair-haired Menelaus face-to-face and to fight senselessly, lest perchance you may be swiftly vanquished by his spear.

Then, in reply (lit. answering), Paris addressed her with these words: "Do not deride my courage (lit. me in respect of my courage), woman, with these harsh reproaches; for Menelaus has defeated (me) now with (the help of) Athene, but I (shall conquer) him on another occasion (lit. in turn); for there are gods on our side too. But come, let us take our pleasure in love, going to bed together; for never (lit. not ever) yet has love encompassed my heart (lit. me in respect of my heart) so (completely), not even (at the time) when, having first snatched you away from lovely Lacedaemon, I set sail (with you) in my sea-going ships, and on the island of Cranae I had loving intercourse (with you) in bed (lit. I mingled [with you] in love and in bed), as I now desire you, and a sweet longing (for you) is taking hold of me."

Thus he spoke, and, getting up (lit. going), he led the way to bed; and at the same time his wife followed (him).

Lines 448-461.  Menelaus is furious at being balked of his vengeance, and Agamemnon demands that the Trojans yield up Helen. 

So these two lay in their corded (lit. perforated) bed, but the son of Atreus paced up and down through the throng (of the Trojans) like a wild beast, in the hope that he might see godlike Alexander somewhere. But none (lit. not anyone) of the Trojans and their famous allies was able to point out Alexander to Menelaus, dear to Ares; for, if anyone could have seen (him), they would certainly not have hidden (him) out of love, for he was hateful to them all, like (lit. equal to) black death. Then, Agamemnon, the king of men, spoke among them too: "Hearken to me, (you) Trojans and Dardanians and allies; as victory is surely seen (to lie) with Menelaus, dear to Ares, do you therefore give up Argive Helen and her treasure together with her, and pay whatever recompense as seems fitting (to pay), even such as shall be remembered among men yet to come (lit. to be).

So spoke the son of Atreus, and the rest of the Achaeans applauded.

SYSTEMS THEORY AND EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

An essay submitted by Andrew William Panton, M.A., Dip. Ed. as course work on the Diploma in Education Management course at Bristol Polytechnic 1973-74. 

What problems arise at the boundary of an educational institution? Suggest some strategies for managing these problems. 

Introduction: Open systems in a turbulent environment:

An educational institution is an open social system in that it maintains itself by an exchange of materials with its environment. Open systems are dependent on their environments, as they will survive and maintain themselves only so long as they import from their environment more energy than they expend in the process of transformation and exportation. 

In a past, in which educational organisations could largely take for granted that there was a consensus within the community at large for their structures, objectives, curricula and methods, it was perhaps possible for a headmaster or principal to treat his institution as a closed system, that is, he could manage the import-transformation-export of students cycle largely oblivious to the the environment of which his institution was but a small sub-system. Such a consensus no longer exists, and failure to appreciate the dependence of educational institutions on their environments will lead to serious consequences. As state schools are not subject to the profit-and-loss motive, they are therefore unlikely to disappear, but failure to take account of environmental factors will result at first in institutional ineffectiveness, and later in a radical transformation of characteristics, a process equivalent to the termination of the system. 

To be aware of the need to take account of the organisation's environment in the running of a school is not, however, a sufficient perspective on this matter, for, as Emery and Trist have shown, the environment in which the school is placed is itself in motion. They describe the modern organisational environment as 'a turbulent field', the major characteristics of which is an increase in the the area of 'relevant uncertainty' for organisations: -

'The consequences which flow from their actions lead off in ways which become increasingly unpredictable: they do not necessarily fall off with distance, but may at any point be amplified beyond all expectation; similarly, lines of action may find themselves attenuated by emergent field forces.' (Emery and Trist, 1965.)

Katx and Georgopoulos (1971) have identified four major changes in modern society which contribute to this 'turbulent field'. A break, at first gradual and now pronounced, with traditional authority and the growth of democratic ideology has affected radically the structures, objectives, curricula and authority base of schools. Economic growth and affluence has has led to a decline in the stress on the opportunity and production functions of education and a growth in the consumption function: education is something which people wish to enjoy in the here-and-now, and not just utilise for the sake of extrinsic goals. There has been a resultant change in the motive patters of students: Maslow's 'ego needs' are replacing 'biological needs' as the dominant modes of motivation, and with the need for self-expression goes the emphasis on spontaneity and the emotions so characteristic of emancipated youth. Finally, the accelerated rate of change makes the socialisation of the young increasingly difficult, since there is less and less agreement amongst the older generations as to the values, norms and role behaviours on which such socialisation is based. As education affects, and is affected by, everyone and everything, it is subject to changes in its environment on a variety of dimensions and at a host of different levels. The dynamic nature of our society and the pervasive effects of social change on education makes the problem of adaptation a critical one for schools and other educational institutions. 

The problem of boundary definition:

Although these problems of adaptation may not be immediately identified, they emerge initially at the boundary of the educational system. As open systems, schools have those problems of boundary definition described by Katz and Khan: -

'The first problem in understanding an organisation or a social system is its location and identification. How do we know that we are dealing with an organisation? What are its boundaries? What behaviour belongs to the organisation and what behaviour lies outside it? Who are the individuals whose actions are to be studied and what segments of their behaviour are to be included?' (Katz and Khan, 1966.)

If the headteacher is to manage effectively the problems that arise at the boundary of his school, he must grapple with these questions. As education is something which involves almost everyone in contemporary society, and, as it is a process which outside as well as inside educational institutions, answers to these questions are likely to be somewhat arbitrary. All the same, if the model of the school as an open system is to be a helpful one, practical definitions concerning its boundary with the environment must be reached. The most effective criterion by which a headteacher can decide what is within and what is without the boundary of the school's system is that of control. What degree of control does he have over particular groups of people, resources and activities? At the input stage of the system he exerts control over staff, students, objectives, money, time, space and other physical resources. At the transformation or process stage he plans, organises, leads and controls the activities of his school, while at the output stage he exerts his influence over the academic and social products of the system, and also attends to the maintenance of the organisation. All these matters he may consider as under his direction, and, therefore, within the boundaries of the system. 

However, the system has boundaries with its environment at both the input and output end of the cycle. At these boundaries the headteacher's control of the system is attenuated by the effects of internal groups or agencies over which he has either a slight or no control and which severely constrain his freedom of action. These environmental influences include the following: - parents, the teaching profession as a whole; the Department of Education & Science; HM Inspectorate of Schools; the Local Education Authority and its advisors; the Board of Governors or Managers; educational research organisations; educational publishers; parallel and related educational institutions; examination bodies; initial and in-service teacher organisations; political pressure groups; employers; trade unions; the Churches; the police and courts; welfare agencies; local clubs and societies; the press; radio and television.

The combined weight of all these external influences will bear very heavily on the system but, because the headteacher has no control over them, they can usefully be considered to be outside the boundary and therefore part of the environment of the system. These influences, however, interact with, and at certain places, break the boundary of the system, and, if the headmaster is to manage this boundary effectively, he must maintain it against the encroachments of this bewildering variety of external influences, all of which will involve him in different problems.

In managing the boundary of his school he will encounter problems that centre around the need to adapt the processes carried out within his school to the demand and needs of the environment. However, piecemeal adaptation will not be sufficient. Environmental instability and the present accelerated rate of change require that adaptive mechanisms are built into the organisational structure of the school, and that on-going strategies are adopted to accommodate the innovations that such adaptations will entail. Some of the problems that arise at the boundary of educational institutions will now be considered. 

Problems arising at the boundary of educational institutions;

The first essential step that a headteacher must take in the management of his school is to determine the aim or goals that he will set for it. This working out of objectives involves the school at once in problems at the boundary of the system. In the process of arriving at the school's objectives, the headmaster must decide whose influence is legitimate in this matter. As has been indicated, most British schools have been in many respects insulated from the views outside them, more particularly because their profit and loss account is struck on a basis other than financial. In addition, the norm of independence has restricted the influence of parents, even when parent-teacher associations exist. As a result of this long-standing tradition of independence, although greatly cherished by teachers, has its disadvantages as well. Firstly, it is very difficult for teachers to decide how to choose between the host of academic, moral, political, economic and selection functions ascribed to schools, and to determine the amount of emphasis to place on each area of objectives. As Musgrove and Taylor (1969) have pointed out, 'The teacher's freedom is also his dilemma'. Indeed, the problems of deciding on objectives is so great that many teachers may feel unqualified to make the necessary philosophical judgements. A second weakness that stems from teachers' independence is the resultant failure of schools to take due account of their environment. The consequences of this failure have already been discussed in general terms, but suffice it to add here that the failure to utilise, or at least to neutralise, field forces leads to a situation in which schools will be permanently underpowered in relation to the goals they seek to achieve. To utilise their environment and to acquire much necessary energic input from it, schools should consult outside groups over the question of objectives. Some educational institutions already have their objectives determined to a great degree in this way: polytechnics and colleges of further education provide courses very much on the demand of of employers and other user-agencies. The supply and demand motive is not so applicable to schools, and few schoolteachers would accept that industry should have much say in the objectives of schools. However, the objectives of schools are coloured by a variety of other external influences that impinge on the school system from outside its boundary. The curricula, syllabuses and, indirectly, the teaching methods of secondary schools are to  great extent determined by examining boards. Teaching methods in school are influenced by the productions of educational publishers and development organisations such as the Schools Council and the Nuffield Foundation, and by local educational authorities, which are able to provide extra money to schools for the purposes of curriculum innovations sanctioned by their advisors. The objectives of schools are also inevitably affected by the work of related educational institutions; for instance, secondary schools must take into account both the curricula and methods of local primary schools, and, at the other end of the scale, the entrance requirements of universities and polytechnics. It is clear, therefore, that the independence of schools is in fact attenuated by many traditional influences. A headteacher and his staff must decide how far such influences on the school's objectives are acceptable. They must further decide what weighting to ascribe to each outside source of legitimate influence in order that conflicts may be settled. All these problems concern sources of influence external to the school.

Another problem, which is directly related to the need to determine educational objectives and which also involves external groups or organisations, is that of  evaluation. Katz and Khan have described the importance of evaluation or feedback from the filed to the maintenance of a system:

'The feedback principle has to do with information input, which is a special kind of energic importation, a kind of signal to the system about environmental conditions and about the  functioning of the system in relation to the environment. The feedback of such information consists enables the system to correct for its own malfunctioning or for changes in the environment, and thus to maintain a steady state or homeostasis.' (Katz and Khan, 1966.)

 External feedback is therefore vital to an educational institution if it is to take the corrective action necessary to keep it on its course. Barry and Tye (1972) have written that ' ... a school should make the maximum use of its external relationships in order to furnish additional evidence for an assessment of its own progress, achievements and shortcomings'. The problem of evaluation is, of course, part and parcel of the objective problem, for to be effective as control devices objectives must be based on appropriate criteria. In this sense, then, objectives are inseparable from the predetermined criteria on which is based the organisation's assessment of whether or not the objectives have been achieved.  The problem of quantifying educational objectives is particularly difficult, and the need for evaluation from the field is a further complication. The headmaster must not only decide to whom he should go for such feedback, but also how the information is to be gathered and over what time scale it should be based. So daunting are these problems that few schools attempt to carry out such an evaluation programme. Nevertheless, it is doubtful that schools can afford to shirk this task indefinitely.

One group whose wishes and views a school usually wishes to consult is parents. Indeed, the question of teacher-parent relations is one of the most important problems that arise at the boundary of school systems. Until recently, it was the accepted policy and practice of both parents and schools that children should be placed in the custody of schools, where they would be educated by schoolmasters who were in a position of almost unchallenged dominance, and who were free to prescribe not only academic courses but dress and conduct, and even social attitudes, standards and values. Much of this omnipotence was based on the belief that what happened at school was the most important mediating factor between a child and the realisation of his potential. Recently, however, research has clearly indicated that the earliest years in a child's development are of primary importance. Evidence has also accumulated in recent years (e.g. 'The Home and the School', J.W.B.Douglas, 1964) to show that the attitudes of parents towards their children's education is one of the factors most closely associated with the relative school achievement of pupils. Among the attitudes which such studies show to be most important are parents' aspirations for their children's education, as indicated by the type and length of formal education they desire for their children, and their interest in their children's education, often assessed by the number of their visits to the school. Communication between schools and parents is vital if the former are to succeed in harnessing this most potent source of environmental power. Furthermore, as Hoyle (1969) remarks, 'It is as parents of school-age children that the public has the greatest potentiality for interaction with teachers ... '. However, arrangements for teacher-parent communication are bedevilled by problems of social class and role relationships. The social class distinctions between the parents of the individual children whom a school serves and its teachers may render ineffective any regular arrangements that the school makes to meet and communicate with parents. Open days, parents' evenings, and meetings of parent-teachers associations are all more likely to be attended by middle class parents. According to the Plowden Report, 20 per cent of non-manual working class parents had been to meetings of parent-teacher associations as opposed to only 5 per cent of manual workers. The 'social distance of teachers, and the unpleasant associations that schools have for many working class parents, lead to a lack of self-confidence, which is often increased by the presence at meetings of the more articulate and socially assured middle class parents. This lack of self-confidence is one cause of the ignorance about schools and the apparent lack of interest in the progress of their children displayed by many working class parents. Yet, it is probably these parents that schools most need to attract, and the problems of communication with parents must be overcome if the impact of schools on all children is to be as effective as it could be. Another source of difficulty  that arises between teachers and parents is in the area of role relationships:

'The role relationship between parent and teacher on the occasions when they interact is a delicate one and often fraught with ambivalence and potential conflict. The aim of the teacher in such exchanges is to enlist the aid of the parent in supporting his objectives, but this aim is often difficult to achieve because parental conceptions of the teacher's role will vary with such factors as social class and the ability of the child, and the teacher can depend upon little consensus about what he is trying to achieve.' (Hoyle, 1969.)

In consequence teachers often find contact with parents frustrating, and the researches of Musgrove and Taylor (1965) found that teachers perceive a high degree of conflict between their view of the school's aims and views of parents. Musgrove and Taylor comment that 'on the whole teachers take an unflattering view of parents'. This situation is almost certainly the result of the unsatisfactory level of communication at present existing between teachers and parents, and improvements are urgently required here.

Parents are perhaps the most significant environmental force which schools should utilise. Also important, however, are the boards of school governors, or managers, and the local education authorities, which represent the interests of the parents, and to whom schools are responsible. Some headmasters try to operate with the minimum of contact with these bodies. Such a policy is unwise, as it is but another example of the tendency of schools not to utilise their environments. Governors and local councillors are often influential members of the local community, and can be powerful allies of a school in its endeavours to project itself and gain support for its aims. A productive relationship with the officers and advisors of the Local Education Department is essential if a school is to obtain the maximum financial backing. Yet, these relations with public representatives and officials, though important, will involve the headteacher in many problems. He must decide how best to utilise his governors and how he may establish the most effective relations with the Local Education Department, and to do this he may find himself wading in waters which have been muddied by political debates on the structure of schools, debates which he may feel to be educationally irrelevant but which inextricably involve the future of his school.

Relations with other educational institutions and examining bodies are another area of problems which occur at the boundary of the school system. As regards other educational institutions in the neighbourhood, the 'most important question to ask is to what extent a particular school fits into the total educational provision in its immediate area'. (Barry and Tye, 1972). Input problems are likely to be particularly severe. The number of primary schools contributing to a secondary school can be very large, and in major cities may be as many as fifty. The variety of approach between primary schools as regards curricula and methods may be very wide: some children will have studies modern mathematics, and some primary French, while others may have learned in open-planned buildings or in circumstances where self-expression was particularly encouraged. The contrasting approaches of primary schools cause input situations of bewildering complexity for the secondary schools into which they feed pupils. At the output end of the secondary school system serious boundary problems also occur. At present, it is common to find unregulated duplication of courses, and even competition between schools and colleges of further education. Such a situation is wasteful and unwise, for in an increasingly turbulent environment educational institutions need to work together if they are to survive. To achieve maximum impact a secondary school must decide how it can most appropriately expend its energies and resources. Co-operation, rather than competition, with colleges of further education is likely to be more fruitful. One example of such co-operation is at Banbury, where the sixth form of Banbury (Comprehensive) School has combined with the North Oxfordshire Technical College to form a Centre for Advanced Studies. Such co-operation, however, can lead to problems of role tension and interlocking timetables which may be greater than the ones solved originally. Examining bodies and universities also produce constraints on the output of schools. The syllabuses and the types of questions set by examining bodies largely prescribe the curricula and teaching methods available to the upper and middle sections of secondary schools, while university entrance requirements predetermine the combination of 'A' levels that sixth formers can study. Teachers often complain bitterly about these restrictions that are imposed upon them, but tend nevertheless to  accept them in practice, when perhaps they should more often dispute the legitimacy of such constraints and consider whether or not they can be lifted or alleviated.

Relations between schools and the various categories of educational 'experts' also imply boundary problems.  There are several groups of professionals beyond the school, apart from administrators, who are professionally concerned with school education. Among these are school inspectors, local education department advisors, college of education lecturers and educational researchers. It would not be an exaggeration to say that most schools are extraordinarily poor at utilising the powerful inputs available from these sources. There is a strong tendency for practising schoolteachers to view with suspicion, if not with downright hostility, the advice of 'educational 'experts' who are not currently engaged in the same work as themselves. In particular, teachers are very little influenced  by educational research, and place little value upon it. There is an abundance of evidence to suggest that, in the learning process, sight is a more important sense than sound; that praise is a more effective motivator of pupils than blame; and that knowledge of results is most valuable if it is given immediately after a piece of work. Yet from the evidence of their classroom practice, many teachers remain impervious to these findings. Such disregard is a problem that must be met and overcome, for schools just cannot afford to ignore those who may have important insights into their difficulties. How to cope with the wealth of relevant information and advice available from the environment is one problem that is directly related to educational 'experts'. Another is the whole question of innovation: who should influence it, and how should it be managed? Whatever strategy of change is adopted, it will almost certainly involve contact with someone external to the school, and, consequently, a temporary breach of the system's boundaries.

The final boundary problem to be considered here - although there are many others that one might consider - concerns the recruitment and subsequent induction of new staff. Teachers are perhaps the most important input into the school from its environment, and in a sense the school is on trial when a staff vacancy occurs. In a locality much relative information about individual schools is passed around the informal network of the teaching profession, and this information tends to ensure that the schools most highly regarded within the profession have the pick of available teachers from which to fill their vacancies. In addition, the manner in which selection procedures are undertaken is another way in which schools are evaluated by teaching e of the team. . Apart from the public relations aspect of the task, recruitment is a boundary problem of considerable importance from another angle, for it is vital that the selection procedure pinpoint not just the most highly qualified applicant but the one whose attitudes and past experience most fit him to fill the vacancy. Once he  has been recruited, the new member of staff must be inducted into the system in order that he becomes as quickly as possible a fully committed and fully contributing member of the team. Staff selection and induction are therefore important aspects of the internal maintenance of the system. The more important the post to be filled, and especially in the case of the headteacher, the more vulnerable is the school system to the consequences of faulty selection procedures. It is vital that the appropriate people - be they governors or staff - are consulted in an appropriate manner, and that the greatest care is taken over the whole process. A problem ancillary to that of staff selection and induction is that of student teachers working in the school as a part of teacher training courses.In the past, schools have sometimes seen the need to accommodate such students as an unwelcome intrusion into the system, but as it is likely that the responsibilities of schools in this direction may well increase in the future, headteachers need to give careful attention to the handling of trainees. The image of the school within the profession is once more at stake in this matter. The problems of staff induction and student teachers at Nailsea School, near Bristol, are sensitively portrayed by Elizabeth Richardson (1973), and together with the recruitment of staff are boundary problems to which the school must give its attention.

A variety of problems that arise at the boundary of educational institutions have now been discussed. All involve forces beyond the direct control of the school and the headteacher, and the number of them and the crucial nature of most of them indicate the impossibility of running the school as a closed system. Furthermore, the turbulent nature of the environment within which all educational institutions have to exist today serves to increase the complexity of these boundary problems. Next to be considered are ways of  approaching some of these problems.

Strategies for managing boundary problems.

The number of boundary problems facing a school is clearly enormous, and no attempt will be made here to suggest coping strategies that relate to all of them. The issues of objectives, evaluation from the field, communication with parents, and the use of educational experts will however now be specifically discussed.

The need to consult groups in the environment about school objectives has already been established. Such consultations can only be effective, however, in circumstances where a school has made a vigorous and concerted attempt to achieve a liaison with those whose influence the school considers legitimate, and to present and explain the school's practice and philosophy to those parties with a stake in the objectives to be set. Parents have the most immediate interest in the school's philosophy and practice, and more particularly in the arrangements made for the welfare of children. It is essential therefore that parents are consulted about the aims and objectives of schools, both at meetings and perhaps through the medium of questionnaires. The balance of responsibilities between school and home for moral education, social training, and citizenship knowledge should be worked out, and the school's objectives in these areas made clear to both teachers and parents. It is particularly important that on such thorny issues as dress, discipline, smoking, and sex education there should be as wide an area of agreement as possible on the approach to be adopted by the school. A liaison with the members of the governing body should also be developed in such a way that they are also concerned about objectives. Governors should be encouraged to visit the school, where senior members of staff could explain to them the current practices and indicate some of the problems. The advice of local education authority officials and advisors should also be sought on occasions, and a dialogue set up that would enable the aims, problems, successes and failures of the school to be better appreciated at 'County Hall'. Some liaison with local employers might also be desirable, but such liaison must be as systematic as possible if it is to contribute meaningfully to the objective debate. The expectations and wishes of employers could be sought out both through the agency of the Careers Advisory Service of the Local Education Authority, and directly by the school through the work of a teacher, one of whose functions might be to visit the larger local employers and interview them on the question of how they think that children can best be prepared at school for adult work.

Directly related to the objectives issue is the need for evaluation of the school's performance. Much of this evaluation can be obtained from within the school system, but, to the extent that the views of external groups have been considered appropriate in the process of determining objectives, evaluation from the field will be necessary. An evaluation of the school by parents is important to obtain, particularly as regards those areas mentioned in the previous paragraph as being of special interest to them. Questionnaires designed to elicit their views could be sent out either during, or at the end of, each school year. As important as the views of parents are the views of former pupils. After all, a school exists for its pupils, and its objectives are therefore most appropriately phrased and assessed in terms of pupil behaviour. During their time at school, pupils can be assessed directly by the school. However, many of the school's objectives are long-term and do not necessarily fall off when a pupil completes his schooling. The performance of former pupils, their values and opinions can also provide the school with important feedback to use in gauging how far the objectives of the school are being met. The difficulties of obtaining such feedback are enormous, but are well worth the effort required. A maximum time scale of probably three years after leaving should be adopted for most pupils. This would enable the school to obtain some definite information about the post-school employment of pupils, and the results of those pupils who proceed to institutions of higher education after leaving school. The records of the Careers Advisory Service could be utilised to determine the kind of jobs ex-pupils were finding, and against such information the school could measure it success in arousing interests and vocational purpose, and also its success in encouraging pupils to make the most of their individual abilities. In addition, the nature of first jobs obtained, and the ease with which school leavers are placed in jobs, will reveal much about how certain objectives of the school are being achieved. Questionnaires might be devised to be sent out to pupils at some point, say three years after they have left school, to test how well the affective objectives of the school were  being achieved. The questionnaire might include questions designed to assess what former pupils had found most valuable and least valuable during their time at the school. At the same time, the Careers Advisory Service might undertake surveys of employers concerning recent intakes of employees, and from these data of use to schools might emerge. Special arrangements for former pupils studying at universities and other places of higher education would be needed. A questionnaire that sought to elicit students' opinions on how well the school had prepared them for advanced academic courses should be devised, in addition to one that tested objectives in the affective domain. Schools might also seek relevant information from university tutors, and should keep a record of the degrees and other academic results of its former pupils. A field evaluation programme that extended over three years would be about appropriate, as it would provide enough time to enable former pupils to see their school career in the perspective of the outside world, while the time scale would be short enough to ensure that their recollections of school were still sufficiently sharp for the purpose. The evaluation procedures suggested above would clearly be very difficult to administer: they would be expensive and time-consuming, and would require considerable clerical support. The design of the appropriate criteria would be difficult, and the return rate of questionnaires might be disappointingly low. Indeed, it has been asserted, with regard to such evaluation from the field, that ' ... such information cannot be assembled regularly or systematically. It will arise, rather by accident than by design, from informal conversations and casual contacts' (Barry and Tye, 1972). If this statement is accepted, however, it is difficult to see that objectives have any value to the school beyond providing those convenient window-dressing platitudes that are faithfully trotted out in school prospectuses and open-day speeches. For, to be effective as a means of controlling the management of the school, objectives must be expressed in measurable terms, and, if the measurement is not to provide a distorted picture, it must be based on information which is indeed regularly and systematically collected. To assess how well all its objectives are being achieved, and incidentally to provide data for the position audit required for the clarification of objectives, the types of evaluation from the field described above are a prerequisite.

The many problems created by the need for communication between school and parents have already been mentioned, as has the desirability of involving parents in the processes of setting objectives and gathering feedback. However, the whole task of teacher-parent communication requires a number of new approaches, if schools are to obtain from parents the support so important to the learning process. It is not sufficient for teachers just to explain their aims and methods to parents; it is also necessary that schools should try to stimulate and encourage parental response and initiative in the creation of a genuine working partnership between teachers and parents. In particular, parents should be encouraged to assess both their children and the school, and, by joining in debates on the objectives of the school, to identify as much as possible with its aims. Such a level of parental involvement would be difficult to attain in view of the different attitudes and social class background of parents, but almost any improvement in this area would be desirable. To achieve improvement teachers would need to recognise the value of communication with parents and to review their contacts with parents. Do present contacts work? Is the situation irremediable? All these questions need to be asked. The formal parents' evenings, open days and school reports are insufficient means of communication, and new methods need to be developed. One way in which parent-teacher communication could be improved would be for teachers to develop more intimate and less formal relationships with parents. Parent-teacher associations at their best are organised ways of stimulating real cooperation, and at their worst still have something to offer. Home visits are another strategy worth pursuing in cases where parents never or rarely visit the school themselves. On their own ground and in relatively informal circumstances, parents tend to talk more freely about their children and the aspirations they have for them. For many parents, such home visits would be more appropriate than addresses at meetings of PTAs, for what most of therm want is effective communication with individual teachers about their individual children, rather than to acquire a general understanding of modern methods of teaching or school organisation. In their conversations with parents, teachers should be prepared to talk 'with' and not 'just at' parents, and in their dealings with children should remember and take due account of the parents' point of view, for much of a teacher's work is wasted, if parents are hostile, indifferent or puzzled. If teachers were to make serious attempts to develop closer relationships with parents, a new dimension would be added to their task that would involve both a revision in their use of time and an addition to the content of their professional training. In view of the diversity already in the teacher's role, and the conflict to which it gives rise, additions to the role should only be contemplated with caution, but, in view of the demonstrated influence which parental attitudes have on teachers' effectiveness, such an addition might be warranted in this case. An increase in teacher-parent communication would do much to clear away the cobwebs of misperceptions that exist on both sides. Musgrove and Taylor's researches (1965) found that parental views on the aims of schooling were much more congruent with those of teachers than the latter had supposed, and they comment that 'the area of (unnecessary) tension might be considerably reduced, if parents and teachers established more effective means of communication'. In secondary schools such communication could be organised under the supervision of heads of year groups or heads of houses, depending on whether the pastoral organisation of the school followed a horizontal or vertical structure, with individual form masters or tutor group teachers, taking the responsibility for direct contact with parents. One proviso needs to be made however.The aims of such communication should be confined to assistance in the learning process. Temptations to widen the scope of pastoral activity to take in social work per se would not only be a transgression into the preserves of others more qualified for such work, but would also attenuate the capacity of schools to fulfil their basic educational functions. The line to be drawn between social and educational responsibilities is bound to be an arbitrary one, but it needs to be drawn all the same.

The final topic to be considered under this heading is that of how communication between practising teachers and the various educational specialists can be improved, in order that that the insights and ideas of the latter can be utilised effectively within the classroom walls. The first way in which educational specialists can help the schools is in the area of staff development and in-service training. Part-time courses, held at colleges and university schools of education and organised by the area training organisations, to disseminate news of research findings, curriculum projects, and new teaching aids and methods could perhaps be more effectively utilised than they are at present. If such courses could be held at teachers' centres, where practical assistance could be offered prior to, or simultaneously with, the fostering of new ideas, such ideas might be received the more readily by practising teachers. Such courses and assistance would from a valuable part of the in-service training task of schools which has been so neglected in the past, although in-service training should probably begin in the schools themselves under the aegis of respective heads of department. A more enlightened response to educational research should also be required of teachers. The attitude of the headteacher towards research is of considerable importance. Johnson (1965) found that there was a high correlation between the attitudes of the headteacher to research and those of his staff. Although the headteacher might appoint a senior member of staff to have responsibility for in-service training, each department should be expected to make arrangements to see that its teachers are kept in touch with news from professional journals and publications. To ensure access to relevant information, some provision for a staff room library would also seem essential. The second area, in which the the knowledge and expertise of educational experts can be put to good use by schools, is in the field of innovation. Teachers have to decide to whose advice they should go when changes are contemplated, and how such changes should be managed. Regular contact with school inspectors and LEA advisors will no doubt yield a good crop of suggestions. College of education lecturers, by virtue of their visits to many different schools, acquire a first-hand knowledge of the problems schools face, and their ideas and judgements are clearly of much value. Once again, however, it seems that the development of professional centres for teachers offers the most exciting possibilities. Such centres, provided by the local authorities, could act as agencies for change between inventors and users, and could carry out many necessary services with regard to the management of innovation. They could act as as resource and information centres, providing liaison between colleges of education and schools, and generally creating an awareness of new developments in educational practice. The staff at the centres could continue support for for development projects after the research, development and dissemination teams had finished their work, and could also act as 'change agents', assisting as collaborators in the process of innovation after initial approaches from schools. Finally, in assisting schools with the in-service training of teachers, professional centres could provide the necessary link with innovative activities, while ensuring that the focus of training was directed towards the functioning group. Used in these ways, professional centres could combine into an amalgam the best aspects of the research, development and dissemination, the social interaction, and the problem solving strategies of innovation, described by Havelock (1970), and provide the kind of flexibly structured approach that he advocates. Appropriately staffed, professional centres are potentially, therefore, an excellent medium through which the work of the various educational specialists can infiltrate into the teaching profession as a whole. They can also, incidentally, provide meeting places for teachers that might facilitate the much needed liaison between teachers from the different sectors of education, and become centres for such things as cooperative curriculum development and resource-based learning projects, thereby encouraging teachers to play a greater part in such activities. In these ways it is evident that professional centres for teachers can contribute towards solutions to those other boundary problems which it has not been possible to suggest here.

Conclusion.

All the strategies that can be put forward to help resolve the boundary problems of educational institutions have one characteristic in common: they demand a radical change of attitude on the part of teachers. At present, the majority of teachers are non-theoretical, are uncommitted to educational objectives, evaluate their work subjectively, value autonomy very highly, and derive their job-satisfaction from personal relationships with their pupils. In short, they are very largely orientated to factors internal to the classroom and the school, and adopt a mainly intuitive approach to their professional work. However, if schools are to combat successfully the host of problems that arise at their boundaries, it is vital that teachers move from this restricted concept of professionality to a more externally orientated approach, and be both ready and willing to work with, rather than against and in ignorance of, the many environmental forces that surround them. Such an extended concept of professionality would require a concern for objectives and evaluation, a commitment towards more effective teacher-parent relationships, a readiness to take account of educational innovations and research findings, and a greater degree of liaison and cooperation between teachers from different institutions. For only by this outward-looking approach, essential in a rapidly changing world, can educational institutions generate that level of effectiveness which society has a right to demand of them.
                                     






                                                          BIBLIOGRAPHY.              

C.H. Barry and F.Tye                   'Running a School', Temple Smith

F.E.Emery and E.L.Trist            'The Causal Texture of the Environment' in 'The Management of Change
                                                      and Conflict, Penguin.

R.G.Havelock                             'A Guide to Innovation in Education', University of Michigan, Ann Arbour

E.Hoyle                                        'The Role of the Teacher', Routledge and Kegan Paul.

M.E.B.Johnson                             'Teachers' attitude to educational research' in Edic. Res. Vo. 9, 1966.

G.Katz and R.L.Khan            'Common Characteristics of Open Systems' in 'Systems Thinking',
                                                     Penguin.

A.Morrison and D.McIntyre          'Teachers and Teaching', Penguin.

P.W.Musgrove                              'The School as an Organisation', Macmillan.
                             
F.Musgrove and P.H.Taylor           'Teachers' and Parents' Conception of the Teacher's Role', in Br. J. of      
                                                      Educ. Psychology, Vol. 35, 1965.

F.Musgrove and P.H.Taylor        'Society and the Teacher's Role', Routledge and Kegan Paul.


E.Richardson                        The Teacher, the School, and the Task of Management, Heinemann.


                                                                                                                          

ROLE CONFLICT IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATIONS

An essay submitted by Andrew William Panton, M.A., Dip.Ed. as course work on the Diploma in Education Management course at Bristol Polytechnic 1973-74.

What are the perceived sources of role conflict in educational organisations? Suggest practical remedies for dealing with such conflict.

The concept of role is important to all educational institutions as it is an essential factor in the analysis of the behaviour of individuals within organisations. Not only is the individual's role conception one of the most important determinants of his performance of that role, but the behaviour of others towards the occupant of a particular role depends on their expectations of how he will perform it. Role behaviour is the result of tremendously conflicting pressures on the role occupant, but these pressures also lead to stresses and strains which contribute to inconsistencies and variations in performance. Role conflict is particularly liable to attach itself to roles where there is a high commitment to other people; as teachers are generally so committed it is particularly important for there to be a thorough appreciation in educational organisations of the sources of role conflict.

The central feature of all role conflict is incompatibility. In his book, 'Role Conflict and the Teacher', Gerald R.Grace writes ' ... role conflict, role strain or role stress are all concerned with problems for the individual which arise as the result of role incompatibilities'. These conflicts appear in different forms: conflicting pressures from different groups; ambiguity in role prescription when roles are new; conflict between role demands and personality needs; and the playing of two incompatible roles concurrently. There is, however, a basic distinction between 'inter-role' conflicts and 'intra-role' conflicts. The former refers to conflicts arising from the simultaneous performance of contradictory roles, while the latter stems from conflicts and insecurities that arise within a specific role. In common with all people teachers suffer inter-role conflicts: they are husbands and fathers as well as teachers. However, we are most concerned with the teacher's intra-role conflicts, that is, with conflicts which are intrinsic to the teacher's role and the circumstances in which it is performed. Potential areas of conflict for the teacher are the culture in which he lives, the organisation in which he works, the community whom he serves, the 'role set' which send him expectations, and the difference between his own conception of the role and the actual perception that he has of it.

In his influential article, 'The Teacher's Role - a sociological analysis', Bryan R. Wilson identified six particular sources of intra-role conflict that affect educational organisations: the diffuse nature of the teacher's role, the diverse expectations of the role set, the marginal role of some teachers, inadequate support by the institutional framework, the clash between commitment to the role and career orientation, and the divergent values of society. Empirical research by sociologists in this field in Britain is somewhat sparse. However Frank Musgrove and Philip H.Taylor in 'Society and the Teacher's Role' have carried out a valuable survey into the diverse expectations of the role set, and Gerald R.Grace in 'Role Conflict and the Teacher' has researched four of the other five areas, largely following the guidelines laid down by Wilson. We shall now consider these six areas of perceived conflict in the teacher's role in the light of the research findings.

To the extent that the socialisation of children is one of their main functions, the task of teachers is unspecific. Wilson writes that 'The role of obligation is diffuse, difficult to delimit, and the activities of the role are highly diverse'. The lower the age of pupils the more diverse the role of teachers is; in primary schools it is particularly difficult to delimit their functions. However, even in secondary schools the teacher is expected to encourage, to act as a friend, a counsellor and a model, and these requirements introduce a considerable diffuseness into the secondary teacher's role as well. In addition, all teachers are expected to display considerable warmth and affective concern in their relations with their pupils, an affectivity that contrasts sharply with the affective neutrality of other professional men, such as lawyers, doctors and architects, and because the teacher has a moral commitment to his pupils it is very difficult for his services to be specified. The diffuseness that arises can therefore be a potential source of considerable conflict, as, in the absence of any clear demarcation lines, the teacher may over-exert himself. Furthermore, the role of the teacher is not only diffuse, it is also made up of diverse and often contradictory tasks. In his book, 'The Role of the Teacher', Professor Eric Hoyle sees the three main functions of the teacher in an industrialised society as instruction, socialisation and evaluation. These diverse obligations are often incompatible. The teacher is expected to be both a warm personality and a disciplinary agent, a friend and confidante, and an objective assessor, and the increasingly specialised nature of his instructional tasks make affective relations harder to achieve. Wilson sees the trends towards specialisation and bureaucratisation within the educational system as leading towards greater neutrality in the teacher's role, and a greater emphasis on the instruction and evaluative aspects of it, at the expense of the socialising functions. The selection function is particularly apparent: ' ... the teacher becomes also a social selector, preparing people in the capacities in the terms of which selection will occur'. Wilson is echoed by Musgrove and Taylor when they state that 'The teacher of today and tomorrow is necessarily an assessor'. The diffuseness and diversity of the teacher's role are a potential source of enormous role conflict, and one might expect it to be productive of a wide discrepancy between the individual's role conception and his perception of his real performance, as well as leading to considerable role ambiguity. In fact, the survey carried out by Grace indicted this area to be the least significant source of role conflict amongst the four sources studied. However, men felt the conflict more than women, and secondary modern more than grammar school teachers. Grace believed that the conflict tended to show itself most clearly in a perceived need for knowledge of results or to know the appropriate criteria of good achievement. The problem of diffuseness and diversity is also apparent as regards headteachers. In English schools, headteachers are expected to be leaders, and indeed see themselves very much in this light, but as R.G.Owens asserts in his book, 'Organisational Behaviour in Schools', much of their time is actually spent on administration, a tendency which the growth of large educational units and the increasing bureaucratisation of the educational structure tend to confirm. Owens points out that these two functions are are incompatible, for, while leadership involves initiating changes in the goals of the organisation or in its methods of goal achievement, administration is concerned to maintain the organisation and to keep its interrelated parts functioning smoothly. Thus, while administration is essentially a conservative force, leadership is a radical process. This intra-role incompatibility in the job of the headteacher probably causes much more conflict than is actually perceived.

Because it is almost always perceived, the diverse expectations of the role set are perhaps the classic source of role conflict. In his work the role incumbent interacts with a number of people, both within and without the organisation, with whom he has contacts and to whom he has obligations. These are his 'role senders', and they communicate role expectations to him. These role senders include superordinates, subordinates and colleagues, and, to the extent that their activities impinge on the role incumbent, they are referred to as his 'role set'. The role set of the teacher is highly diverse: headmaster, colleagues (both senior and junior), school governors or managers, the local education authority, the Department of Education and Science, pupils, parents, other educational institutions, and, in the case of further education, employers are all senders of different expectations which create conflict in the mind of the teacher as to how he should conceive his role. The strain that the conflicting pressures of the role set cause is made worse, according to Wilson, by the diffuseness of the teacher's role: ... the role set of the teacher is especially formidable because the role is diffuse and and because everyone in contemporary society has ready opinions about what the teacher should and does do'. In addition, the individual teacher's conception of his role and his personality needs are added sources of conflict. The main research relating to teacher role conflict has been carried out by Musgrove and Taylor in this very area. Their researches reveal the way in which teacher's exposure to role conflict varies with the type of the school in which they teacher, and the social context of the school. Secondary teachers placed greatest emphasis on the instructional aspects of their jobs but primary teachers, while doing the same, perceived pupil expectations as focusing on the personality requirements of the role. The expectations of parents for teachers in junior schools were sharply differentiated by the distinction of social class:

' ... parents in the two areas were sharply distinguished in their expectations of teachers in the junior school. On the municipal housing estate parents tended to place more responsibility on the school for training the child's behaviour - in part at least because they felt that teachers were more effective than themselves; in the well-to-do residential area parents placed more emphasis on the home.'
(Frank Musgrove and Philip H.Taylor, 'Society and the Teacher's Role', p.41)

Musgrove's enquiries also highlighted the difference between the qualities of the teacher most valued by children and the qualities most valued by children themselves. While the teachers, especially those who were non-graduates, thought the personal qualities of teachers of very great importance, children of all ages saw teaching skill as the most valuable attribute of the teacher. Headteachers are also considerable sources of conflict, as most teachers perceived the head as emphasising disciplinary abilities, whereas they would put the emphasis elsewhere. Musgrove and Taylor also showed that teachers see severe conflict between their own role priorities and their perceptions of parents' expectations, but indicated also that this conflict is not borne out empirically. While teachers put a high priority on moral training and a low one on social advance, they perceived parents as having reverse expectations. In fact, Musgrove and Taylor found that both teachers and parents were substantially in agreement. This finding confirmed the work of B.J. Biddle at al. in 'Contemporary Research on Teacher Effectiveness'; they suggested that teachers often see more conflict between the expectations of the role set and their own job conception than actually exists. However, role conceptions remain a very potent source of role conflict for the teacher, whether they actually represent the expectations of the role set or not. P.S.Burnham's  investigations into the role of the deputy head in secondary schools showed that deputy heads in secondary modern schools were exposed to more conflict due to their 'middle of the road' position between headteachers and assistants than their grammar school counterparts were. This work was confirmed by Musgrove and Taylor, both in their indication that the headteacher is a major source of teacher role conflict and in their finding that the type of school is an important variable.

A less widespread, but for some a very poignant source of conflict, is the marginal role accorded to some teachers within educational organisations. Most role occupants need to feel that their activities are important and central to the organisations in which they work and anxiety is likely to arise in circumstances when they perceive that their status is only marginal in the eyes of superiors or colleagues. Wilson illustrates this conflict by reference to the teacher of liberal studies in technical colleges, where 'his subject is thought of -by colleagues and clientele alike - as a trimming, a piece of whitewash with no significance for the real business of the institution'. Education officers in the armed forces and industry are susceptible to the same source of role conflict. In secondary schools marginality of role is perceived in terms of the status of the teacher's subject specialism. Teacher of art, music, handicrafts, domestic science, commercial subjects, technical drawing, needlework and physical education all suffer problems of marginality due to their subjects being 'extras', sometimes optional and often non-examinable, and due also to their role being seen as one of 'instruction' as opposed to education. Teachers of mathematics, modern languages and science, on the other hand, are perceived as enjoying high status on account of their subject specialisms. Grace's research confirmed that role conflict was felt by teachers of marginal subjects, and that this conflict is very severe in the case of some individuals. Musgrove and Taylor also found that subject specialisms were ranked in a hierarchy of esteem by teachers. They also suggested that a teacher's self-concept is closely related to his subject, and that these subjects cause problems of status and role: 'Academic subjects have become highly organised social systems with heavily defended boundaries'. Marginal status is not only associated in secondary schools with the status of a particular subject; it is also connected with the preference of the headteacher as expressed in allocation of time, resources, staffing scales and the calibre of pupils selected to study a particular subject. Classics, while still enjoying high academic status, has gradually acquired a marginal position in most secondary schools. Teachers of marginal or minority subjects are all likely to feel considerable role anxiety.

The next source of role conflict that we shall consider arises from circumstances in which the role is inadequately supported by the institutional framework in which it is performed. Conflict in this fashion can appear if teachers find that the way society treats them, and the institutional arrangements that are made for them, clash with their desired professional image. This role vulnerability is a particular problem in America, where schools are subject to considerable bureaucratic control, but even in Britain teachers are very exposed to public pressure because one of their main processes, socialisation, is a public one. Grace's survey of this problem indicated that, while many teachers perceived role vulnerability as a source of conflict, only a few had personally experienced it. Where it did exist, it was generally found among teachers in secondary modern schools. Graduate teachers in all schools showed less vulnerability than their certificated colleagues, and such vulnerability was closely related to the marginal status of subject specialisms. Grace found no evidence of any conflict caused by an overbearing bureaucracy or by the lack of professional treatment. The teacher's autonomy is greatly valued by educational organisations. Of the teacher, Musgrove and Taylor write that 'He decides (perhaps in consultation with his immediate colleagues at his school) the content of the curriculum; the human values he presents to his pupils; the very scope of his duties'.

A more serious source of teacher role conflict in Britain today is that which comes from the clash between commitment to the role and commitment to the career-line. Grace found that this was the most highly rated source of role conflict perceived by teachers. Career orientation cuts across a commitment to the role in circumstances in which most teachers accept that a continued commitment to a particular situation is desirable. Unfortunately, it is clear that an individual teacher is judged by his superordinates in terms of his career orientation. Wilson states that 'There is an inducement in this situation to make right impressions on significant people rather than significant impressions on the right people - the children'. It is also perceived that mobility and promotion are connected. In his investigations Grace found that this conflict was felt most keenly by men teaching in secondary modern schools. They felt both the commitment to remain in a particular situation and pressing economic needs for promotion, and greatly resented the 'upwardly mobile' teachers who 'floated' through their schools.

 An even more deeply rooted source of role conflict, and one which is endemic in a developing industrialised world, is conflict that arises from the divergent values of society. In the past the teacher was expected to transmit the values of the community to his pupils. In an age of value-consensus such a function was possible, but in a society where such consensus no longer exists the potential conflicts of the teacher are very clear. Hoyle writes that ' ... modern societies are perhaps characterised less by a consensus of values than a conflict between values. A wide variety of moral, political and religious beliefs are "available" and this variety presents the teacher with many dilemmas'. According to Wilson, the teacher's representation of moral virtue, integrity and sensitivity are at odds with the achievement-orientation and commercial exploitation of modern society. This pluralism in values is especially difficult for the teacher as the new or emergent values are often as those of youth, and the teacher is seen as the voice of traditional values. The widening gap between generations and the and the decline in respect for established authorities contribute towards further weakening of the moral authority of the teacher. Wilson also sees the mass media as an powerful source of alternative values to those of the teacher, representing as they do escapist material and success by quick methods. Furthermore, the values of the teacher are often the norms of the middle class and, as Hoyle points out, in an age of growing heterogeneity in educational groupings this is a further source of conflict for the teacher: 'The most difficult task of the teacher is to encourage high motivation amongst working class children without at the same time encouraging a wholly individualistic and 'rat race' attitude to life'.

We have now considered the six categories of role conflict highlighted by Wilson. Available research indicates that the extent to which these categories are perceived or experienced by individual teachers depends upon a variety of mediating variables, classified by Grace into the characteristics of the conflict, the characteristics of the teacher and the characteristics of the school. The characteristics of the conflict refer to the type, and the intensity, of the conflict and, in the case of teachers, whether it involves problems of 'moral orientation' or 'self-orientation'. The characteristics of the teacher include age, sex, qualifications, subject specialism, personality, and strategies for resolving conflict. The characteristics of the school refer to the size, organisation, clientele, social class context, and to the characteristics of the headteacher and the goals he sets. The evidence suggests that conflict affects men more than women teachers, teachers in secondary modern schools more than those in grammar schools, and teachers in working class areas more than in middle class districts. In secondary schools the subject specialism taught appears as an important variable, and the headteacher is also seen as a significant inducer of conflict. The interrelations of these variables are clearly likely to be very complex, and the problems of role conflict are deeply rooted and intractable.

It is also apparent that the tremendous rate of organisational and educational change in the secondary school system has serious implications as far as teacher role conflict is concerned. Teachers are continually faced with changing circumstances, and the variables of a new situation are often more likely to induce conflict than those of a previous one. The movement towards area comprehensive schools causes particular problems of conflict for teachers accustomed to the traditional atmosphere of the grammar school. The diffuseness of the role increases, the expectations of the role set become more diverse, and, as educational groupings become more heterogeneous, the problem of divergent values becomes greater. Moreover, the greater size of comprehensive schools introduces changes in educational climate, and may lead to a growth of bureaucratisation that threatens the autonomy so highly prizes by teachers. Curriculum development and new teaching methods are also potential sources of new conflict for some teachers. Team teaching and inter-disciplinary enquiry cut across subject specialisms, and may therefore introduce a further element of diffuseness into the situation, as well as threatening the teacher's self-concept. The importance of the consequences of change for the role of the teacher is becoming increasingly apparent.

The consequences of unresolved role conflict should be fully appreciated by organisations. Conflict can sometimes be beneficial as it provides an impetus towards necessary change, but it is only beneficial if these changes actually come about. Continuing conflict may lead to abandonment either of the role or of commitment to it, job dissatisfaction and career dissatisfaction. In addition, role conflict produces tensions and uncertainties commonly associated with inconsistent organisational behaviour. This inconsistency or unpredictability often leads to further tensions and inter-personal strife between incumbents of complementary roles, thereby preventing them from establishing satisfactory role relationships. Inevitably, optimum performance of the role incumbent is inhibited, and conflict leads directly to impaired competence and effectiveness. In extreme cases, where conflict is intense, it can cause severe personal anxiety, and even illness. According to W.Charters, role conflict in the teaching situation may lead to a position where 'the teacher is likely to belittle the accomplishment of education and to take a cynical attitude towards his work, the school system, and educational ideas and ideals'. It is clearly vital for all educational organisations to seek new and effective methods of resolving these role conflicts which so threaten their operations.  

Different strategies can be adopted to resolve situations of role conflict, and individuals differ according to personality as to which type of strategy they use. Most people adapt to incompatible expectations according to some principle of choice that they adopt. Some will adapt to conflict on the grounds of what is more expedient in their career interest; some will decide to base their actions on the grounds of what are the more legitimate moral claims on them, disregarding other factors. Most people steer a middle course, but a compromise is usually only a temporary solution and conflict shortly reappears. An even less satisfactory strategy for resolving role conflict is role retreatism. This can involve abandonment of one's commitment to the role, or the abandonment of a particular commitment due to failure. The latter may sometimes be a beneficial response in a situation where retreat is wise, but all too often role retreatism is a prelude to feelings of pessimism and cynicism which eventually lead to movement or the abandonment of the role altogether. Most research on the consequences of role conflict has dealt with areas where the conflict has not been resolved. Those who continue to perform a role in circumstances where conflict or ambiguity exist develop dysfunctional ways of coping with the problems. Joking, non-discussion of the problem or ritualistic behaviour are methods which permit role performance with a minimum of actual conflict. All these strategies are unsatisfactory as they fail to deal with the problems. However, in some circumstances conflict acts as a stimulus to the role occupant in seeking to change or redefining the incompatible situation in which he is placed. J.W.Getzels has written that 'certain types of conflict, like certain types of necessity, give rise to productive transformations'. We shall now consider what can be done to resolve role conflict in educational organisations.

The problems of role commitment and role vulnerability can only really be resolved outside educational organisations. They are very much conflicts which only societies as a whole can deal with adequately, sonce they involve the whole structure of the teaching profession and of the schools in which they work.Teachers as private citizens or as members of professional associations and unions can apply pressure towards these ends, but as teachers they can also do something inside the schools to help resolve these conflicts. If empirical research indicates that the widespread impression that the rate of mobility amongst teachers is dysfunctional is correct, then the structure of the teaching profession must change in order to reward the committed teacher. Larger schools should create possibilities of internal promotion and job variation, and higher salaries could lessen the extent to which the mobility of young teachers world be tolerated. Four or five year contracts could then be insisted upon  in normal circumstances, but this is manifestly impossible in view of  the present salary structure of teachers. The fact that, in the absence of any real means of assessment, variety of experience, and therefore mobility, is an advantage in the promotion of teachers, could be alleviated by the development of evaluation methods that would vindicate the teacher committed to remaining in a particular school or post. Such a development is urgently required or there is a particularly high level of conflict caused by the clash between role commitment and career orientation.

Role vulnerability was not discovered in the studies undertaken by Grace to be the subject of high role conflict, but nevertheless teachers by working with social forces can contribute to resolving some of the difficulties in this area. Frank Musgrove was critical of the considerable autonomy claimed by the teacher and delegated to him by the community: 'He claims the right to disregard his client which no other professional enjoys. Unlike the lawyer or the architect he is the arbiter of ends as well as the expert in means'. At the same time as being the teacher's glory this autonomy is also perhaps the major source of his weakness; schools are especially poor at public relations. The consequence is, as Musgrove points out in his book 'Patterns of power and authority in English Education' that 'Schools are underpowered in relation to the goals they try to attain'. Musgrove and Taylor believe that the organisation of education should come under the effective control of parents as consumers, and that 'the local authorities would go into business, offering an educational service to the nation's children which would be sought after or rejected according to its merits'. Such schools would be powerful as they would only exist because they enjoyed popular approval and support. (Such support might come through a voucher system.) Musgrove strongly disapproves of the recent trend towards the area comprehensive school, and hopes that the system he advocates would encourage diversity rather than uniformity in the educational system with regard to the goals and priorities set by schools. Musgrove's ideas have much to recommend them from the viewpoint of the resolution of role conflict: divergent schools enjoying a strong measure of popular support should reduce conflict from the role set, role vulnerability and value conflict. However, such a system is probably economically unrealistic, and, as Grace states, 'a serious reduction in teacher autonomy would probably be disastrous'. Although he concedes that modifications in the autonomy of the individual teacher are necessary to facilitate innovations such as team teaching and inter-disciplinary enquiry, Grace feels that a reduction in the autonomy of schools might lead to a decrease in institutional support of teachers, and that a reduction in the freedom of individual teachers would adversely affect motivation and job-satisfaction. The answer might lie in a compromise: schools should become more responsive to their environment, and a determined effort should be made to raise the professional status of teachers. The failure of schools either to neutralise or to utilise the environments in which they operate greatly weakens their impact upon the community. Greater links with industry and with parents through Parent-Teacher Associations should help to rectify this situation and provide schools with valuable feedback. Empirical studies would also make schools more aware of the real expectations of their 'clients'. If schools are to show themselves more sensitive to their environments, it will also be necessary to increase the status of teachers in order to avoid role vulnerability developing. The status of a profession is reflected in its pay scales; if teachers are to be in a position to lobby for larger salaries, they must be in a position to demonstrate their professional effectiveness more clearly. Musgrove would like to see teachers concentrating more on educational means, and therefore specialists in educational technology. At the same time, the devising and introduction of evaluative techniques in the teaching profession are urgently required; examination results alone are insufficient  to assess the effectiveness of individual teachers. The movement towards an all-graduate entry to the teaching profession would also assist in raising the status of teachers, so long as academic standards at universities are maintained. If the developments outlined in this paragraph come about, the autonomy of the teacher might perhaps decline, but his real influence would probably increase greatly.

Although many of the teacher's role conflicts cannot be resolved solely by action taken within educational organisations themselves, schools can nevertheless do much to alleviate the strain of these conflicts on teachers by developing strategies specifically aimed at reducing conflicts. The first essential is to receive more information about the role set. Musgrove and Taylor's discovery that the discrepancy between parents' expectations and teachers' role priorities was much less than teachers perceived, indicates that much unnecessary strain can be cause by misperceptions. More research is required if schools are to deal adequately with pressures from their role sets. At the same time more research is necessary to estimate the effects on teachers of changes in schools:

' ... there is a need for "planned change" in educational organisations which monitors the consequences of innovation not solely in terms of teacher reaction and teacher satisfaction. While it is clear that educational systems do not exist merely to provide teachers with maximum satisfaction - it is equally clear that attempts at innovation which assume that the teacher will "fit in" with the latest blueprint are doomed to failure. Any serious attempt to introduce change needs to be accompanied by an assessment of probable consequences for the teacher, programmes of reorientation and preparation and on-going monitoring of actual consequences'.
(Gerald R.Grace, 'Role Conflict and the Teacher', p.107)

The provision of adequate data on which to  base one's policy decisions is one of the important tasks of the manager. If a frontal assault is to be made on the problems of the role conflict of teachers, effective leadership and management by headquarters is the first prerequisite. The first essential for headteachers is that they should be trained for the job, and that their training should include a thorough knowledge of social systems and organisational behaviour theories. Secondly, they should devote less time to administration and more to leadership, possibly by delegating as many routine decisions as possible. In the exercise of their leadership role they should seek, in conjunction with all members of their staffs, to reach clear objectives for their schools. Decisions on priorities should reduce the conflict caused by diffuseness and diversity, as well as  deflecting the strain caused by the varying expectations of the role set. It might be that teachers would do well to concentrate on their instructional and selection functions, and to leave pastoral matters to those more qualified to deal with them. At the same time, as Musgrove and Taylor suggest, a new specialisation between 'front-line' teachers and 'back-room' specialists in evaluation and resource provision might be desirable. Such a development would imply a greater need for teamwork, which the headteacher should emphasise. He should ensure that all the necessary functional needs of the group are fulfilled, and that every member of the staff feels that he has an important part to play in a school which has clear objectives. As Grace points out, the headteacher should also be aware of the need to provide knowledge of results for those teachers whose role is particularly diffuse - usually the teachers of average or below-average pupils - , and recognition for those who feel vulnerable because of the marginal nature of their subject specialisms. The conflicts of the latter might also be reduced, and their feelings of belonging to the team enhanced, by specifically including them in team-teaching and curriculum development projects. To reduce conflict caused by the lack of institutional support, the headteacher should ensure the provision of both managerial and social support for teachers, and especially support when their authority over pupils is challenged. Related to problems of role vulnerability is teachers' concern over professionalism; to reduce conflict here the headteacher should aim to involve the staff in the process of shared decision making whenever appropriate. The use of a definite strategic model is useful; the 'Paradigm for shared decision making in the school', contained in R.G.Owens' book, 'Organizational Behaviour in Schools', is one example. In general, effective management should contribute greatly to reducing role conflicts in all areas.

The value of discussion must also be emphasised. The airing, and frank discussion, of problems may by themselves reduce the tensions created by role conflict. Teachers would thereby discover that they were not alone in suffering strains and stresses. Such discussion would indicate the need for problems to be resolved, and facilitate the introduction of strategies likely to do so. Discussion could also be instrumental in coping with problems caused by the divergent values of society. Grace asserts that 'parents, teachers and senior pupils should explicitly recognise value problems or conflicts and should engage in open and frank discussion of the issues'. The involvement of all in these problems would then become apparent. The teacher would cease to be 'an isolated agent caught in the crossfire of generations', and appear as one involved in collaboration with others in a rational exploration of alternative values.

The teacher's role conflicts are largely the consequence of social and economic changes in a world that is continually developing. As the world will continue to change, these conflicts can never ultimately be resolved. However, a strategy that combines effective leadership with open discussion and continuous research should ensure that such conflicts are not only held in check, but that they are the dynamic through which the services of our schools are refined by necessary educational and organisational change.



                                                            BIBLIOGRAPHY

Grace, G.R.                    'Society and the Teacher's Role', (Routledge and Kegan Paul), 1969.

                                       'Role Conflict and the Teacher', (Routledge and Kegan Paul), 1972.

Hoyle, E.                         'The Role of the Teacher', (Routledge and Kegan Paul), 1969.

Musgrove, F. and
       Taylor, P.H.             'Society and the Teacher's Role, (Routledge and Kegan Paul), 1969.

Owens, R.G.                   'Organizational Behaviour in Schools, (Prentice-Hall), 1970.

Wilson, B.R.                   'The Teacher's Role - a sociological analysis', (BJS 13(i): 15-32), 1962.