"VOX DICENTIS CLAMA"

"VOX DICENTIS CLAMA" 

This is the title of a motet composed for King's College, Cambridge in 1911 by Edward Woodall Naylor (1867-1934), who was the organist of Emmanuel College from 1898. It puts to music the famous verses 6-11 of Chapter 40 of the 'Book of Isaiah' in the 'Old Testament'. 

Latin text, taken from the 'Vulgate' of St. Jerome:

Verses 6-8:

Vox dicentis "Clama" et dixi "Quid Clamabo?"

Omnis caro foenum,

et omnis gloria eius quasi flos agri.

Vere foenum est populus.

Exsiccatum est foenum, et cecidit flos:

verbum autem, Domini nostri manet in aeternum.

Verse 9:

Super montem excelsum ascende tu, qui evangelisas Sion:

exalta in fortitudine vocem tuam, qui evangelisas Jerusalem

exalta, noli timeri.

Dic civitatibus Judae: Ecce Deus Vester.

Verse 10: 

Ecce, Dominus Deus in fortitudine veniet, 

et bracchium eius dominabitur:

ecce, merces eius cem eo, 

et opus illius coram illo.

Verse 11:

Sicut pastor gregem suum pascet, 

in bracchio suo congregabit agnos,

et in sinu suo levabit.

foetas ipse portabit. 

English translation:

The voice of one saying, "Cry!" and I said "What shall I cry?"

All flesh is grass.

and all its beauty is as the flower of the field.

Surely the people is grass.

The grass has withered and the flower has fallen;

but the word of our Lord stands forever.

Get you up into a high mountain, you who tells good news to Sion:

lift up your voice in strength, you who tells good news to Jerusalem:

lift it up, fear not;

say unto the cities of Judah, "Behold your God!"

Behold, the Lord God shall come in might, 

and His arm shall rule:

Behold, His reward is with Him, 

and His work is before Him.

He shall feed His flock like a shepherd, 

and shall gather the lambs in His arms,

and He shall lift them into His bosom,

and carry Himself those that are with young.

P.S. Sabidius has added this above item to his repertoire at the request of Giles Panton, the beloved son of his coadjutor, Andrew Panton.

THE SHORTER HOMERIC HYMNS

Introduction:

The Homeric Hymns are a collection of thirty-three anonymous ancient Greek hymns celebrating individual gods, mostly dating to the seventh century B.C., shortly after the works of Homer and Hesiod had first been written down, and they are therefore among the oldest monuments of Ancient Greek literature. In antiquity they were uncritically attributed to Homer, the earliest reference to them coming from Thucydides (see Bk III. 104). Although it is now clear they were not written by Homer, they were composed in the old epic style, i.e. in dactylic hexameters, and in a dialect closely resembling that of Homer. Most of them are very short, if not fragmentary, but four of them, i.e. hymns 2-5, are more lengthy: (2) to Demeter 495 lines; (3) to Apollo 546 lines; (4) to Hermes 580 lines; and (5) to Aphrodite 293 lines. Translations of these four longer Homeric Hymns are available as items on this blog, dated as follows: Demeter: 11 June 2019; Aphrodite: 7 April 2020; Apollo: 1 August 2020; and Hermes: 12 November 2020. Translations of the other shorter Homeric Hymns (No. 1 and Nos. 6-33) are now offered below. The text for these translations is taken from "Homeric Hymns", edited by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Harvard University Press, published by William Heinemann, London (1914), and is available on the 'Perseus' website, sponsored by the Classics Department of Tufts University.  

 1) TO DIONYSUS - Εἲς Διώνυσον.

(The subject of the first, albeit fragmentary, Homeric Hymn is Dionysus (known to the Romans as Bacchus), the god of wine, vineyards, the theatre and dramatic poetry. His mother, Semele, the daughter of Cadmus, the legendary founder king of Thebes, who had been made pregnant by Zeus, was tricked by his wife Hera into asking Zeus to reveal himself in his true form. This he felt compelled to do because he had previously promised Semele to grant her whatever she requested. As a result Zeus burst into flames and this heavenly fire consumed Semele. Zeus then rescued the premature Dionysus from his mother's womb and sewed him into his thigh to complete his gestation. Thus Dionysus was born twice, once from his divine mother, and then from the thigh of his divine father. Thus the epithet 'εἰραφιῶτης' given to Dionysus (see ll. 2, 17, 20 below) appears to mean 'insewn', although other etymologies are possible.  

Hymn 1 was originally much longer, it is thought, perhaps as long as Hymns 2-5. Now, however, only two fragments survive: the first nine lines probably came at the beginning, although some words may be missing before line 1; and the last lines were probably the ending of the original hymn.)  

Ll. 1-9.  Dionysus' possible birthplaces.

... for some say that pregnant Semele bore you to thunder-loving Zeus at Draconon (i.e. a promontory on Cos, an island in the Mediterranean just off the south-west coast of the present-day Turkey) and some in woody Icarus (i.e. an island in the East Aegean Sea, to the west of Samos), and some in Naxos (i.e. a large island in the Cyclades in the Aegean Sea), (O) heaven-born Eiraphiotes (i.e. this probably means 'insewn'), and others by the deep-eddying river Alpheus (i.e. a river in the Western Peloponnese, near Olympia); and others say that you, lord, were born in Thebes (i.e. the city in Boeotia, generally regarded as Dionysus' birthplace); (they are all) lying; for the father of men and of gods (i.e. Zeus) begat you far away from mankind (and) hidden from white-armed Hera. Now there is a certain Nysa (i.e. adjacent to the mouths of the Nile), a most high mountain abounding in woods, far from Phoenicia (i.e. a region on the east coast of the Mediterranean, north of Israel), (and) near the streams of Egypt,

(some lines are missing)

Ll. 10-21.  Zeus proclaims regular festivals to Semele.

"... and they will raise many statues (to you) (i.e. Semele) in your temples. And, as these (things are) three (i.e. a reference to something in the body of the hymn, now lost), men will always sacrifice complete hecatombs (i.e. a hundred oxen) to you every three years."

The son of Cronos (i.e. Zeus) spoke, and nodded with his dark brows; and so the king's heavenly locks streamed down from his head; and he made great Olympus quake. So Zeus the counsellor spoke and nodded his head. 

Be gracious, Eiraphiotes (n.b. the meaning of this epithet of Dionysus is obscure), mad about women (i.e. groups of women, known as 'maenads' were possessed by Dionysus with religious frenzy); now we minstrels sing of you, as we begin and end (our song); nor is there any way to forget you and be mindful of sacred song. And so, hail to you, Dionysus Eiraphiotes, together with your mother Semele, whom some call Thyone. 

6) TO APHRODITE - Εἲς Ἀφροδίτην. 

(This short hymn in honour of Aphrodite, the Goddess of Love, (known to the Romans as Venus,) follows immediately after the long hymn of 293 lines composed in her honour. It was clearly composed for a singing contest (see ll. 19-20 below), but there are no indications of its date or of where it was written. It is possible it came from Cyprus, but the reference to Cyprus in l. 2 could be purely literary in its significance.)

I shall sing of revered Aphrodite, gold-crowned and beautiful, who has obtained as her abode the walled cities of all of Cyprus, where the moist force of the hard-blowing Western Wind bore her (i.e. from her birthplace at Cythera) in soft foam over the waves of the loud-roaring sea; and the gold-filleted Hours (i.e. the goddesses of the seasons and the keepers of the Gates of Olympus) welcomed her gladly and placed heavenly garments around (her); and on her immortal head they put a golden crown, well-wrought and beautiful; and in her pierced ear-lobes (they placed) ornaments of fine copper and precious gold; and around her tender neck and her silver-white breasts, they adorned (her) with golden necklaces, such as the gold-filleted Hours are indeed adorned with, whenever they go the lovely dances of the gods and their father's house.  

And, when they had placed every (kind of) ornament around her body, they brought (her) to the immortals; and they saw (her) and welcomed (her) and offered (her) their right-hands in greeting, and each (one of them) prayed that he might lead her to his home to be his wedded wife, (so) amazed were they at the beauty of violet-crowned Cytherea. 

Hail, you sweet-winning (goddess) with the fluttering eyes; and grant that I may gain the victory in this contest, and furnish my song with grace. But I shall remember you, and another song also. 

7) TO DIONYSUS - Εἲς Διώνυσον. 

(This is the second of three poems concerning Dionysus, the God of Wine, (known to the Romans as Bacchus,) in the collection of Homeric Hymns, and, at 59 lines, it is also by far the longest. The story of Dionysus and the pirates, which is the subject of this hymn, is a favourite theme in classical literature, as is the transformation of men, who have fallen into the sea, into dolphins. Although it has been suggested that the date of this poem is as late as the third or fourth century B.C., there is no good reason to separate it from the seventh century date of most of the collection. As to the location of its composition, both Athens, (in connection with a festival of Dionysus,) and Naxos have been suggested as possibilities.) 

Concerning Dionysus, the son of glorious Semele, I shall recall how he appeared by the shore of the barren sea on a jutting headland looking like a young man in the prime of youth; his fine dark hair was bobbing up and down, and around his strong shoulders he had a purple cloak; and presently some men came forward swiftly over the wine-dark sea on their well-benched ships, Tyrsenian (n.b. the Tyrsenians were ancient Pelasgic, or non-Hellenic, inhabitants of Thrace) pirates (they were), and, when they saw (him) they beckoned to one another, and jumped out at once. Then, they seized (him) quickly, and took (him) aboard their ship, rejoicing in their hearts. For they thought he was the son of kings nurtured by Zeus, and they sought to bind (him) with grievous shackles. But the shackles did not hold him, and the bonds fell far away from his hands and feet; and he sat (there) with his dark eyes, smiling; but the helmsman saw (it) and at once understood (what it meant), and cried out to his comrades: "(You) madmen, what god is this, strong (as he is), whom you have seized and bound? Not even our well-made ship can carry him. For surely this is Zeus, or Apollo with his silver bow, or Poseidon; for (he is) not like mortal men, but (like) the gods who have their dwellings on Olympus. But come, let us set him free on the dark mainland; but do not lay hands on (him), lest he is provoked in some way, and stirs up harsh winds and a heavy storm."

So he spoke; but the captain rebuked him with words of malice: "Keep your eye on the wind, (you) fool, and haul up the ship's sails with (me), and take up the ropes all at once; furthermore, this (fellow) will be seen to by (us) men. I expect he will come to Egypt, or Cyprus, or to the Hyperboreans (i.e. the people of the extreme north), or even further afield; but, in the end, he will tell us at some time of his friends, and of all his possessions and his brothers, since fate has thrown (him) in our (path)."  

When he had spoken, he hoisted the mast and the mainsail on to the ship. Then, the wind swelled the middle of the sail, and the (crew) made fast the ropes on all sides; but soon wondrous works appeared. First of all, a sweet fragrant wine flowed babbling away through the swift black ship, and a heavenly odour arose; and amazement seized hold of all the sailors who saw (it). And immediately a grape-vine spread out in all directions across the top of the sail, and many clusters of grapes hung down (from it); and a dark ivy-plant entwined itself around the mast, blooming with flowers, and lovely fruit grew on (it); and all the thole-pins had wreaths; and then those that saw (these things) bade the helmsman bring the ship in to land; then, the (god) turned himself into a terrible lion, there in the bows of the ship, and it roared loudly, and in the middle (of the ship) he created a bear with a rough shaggy neck, such portents did he show; and it stood up, raging ravenously; and on the top deck the lion scowled fiercely; and the (crew) fled into the stern, and in their terror they stood around the helmsman, who had a sound mind; and suddenly it sprang upon the captain and seized (him), and, when they saw (this), the (sailors) all jumped overboard together into the shining sea to escape an evil fate, and they became dolphins; but he showed mercy to the helmsman and held (him) back and made him truly happy, and said these words (to him): "Take courage, good sir, you who are dear to my heart, for I am the loud-shouting Dionysus, whom my mother, Cadmus' daughter Semele, brought into this world, having joined in love-making with Zeus."

Hail, (you) child of fair-faced Semele! It is not possible for anyone who is forgetful of you to compose sweet song (viz. the similar conclusion of Hymn 1 above).  

8) TO ARES - Εἲς Ἄρεα.

(This short hymn to Ares, the God of War, (known to the Romans as Mars,) seems out of place as a Homeric Hymn, and seems more akin to the collection of Orphic Hymns of the Late Hellenistic Age.) 

(O) mighty Ares, chariot-laden, golden-helmeted, stout-hearted, shield-bearer, guardian of cities, strong of hand, untiring, mighty with a spear, bulwark of Olympus, father of Nike (i.e. Goddess of Victory), (who is) successful in war, ally of Themis (i.e. Goddess of Justice), master of the unruly, leader of the most righteous of men, bearing the staff of manliness, whirling your fiery-red orb among the constellations in the sevenfold tracks of the sky, where the blazing foals ever bear you above the third orbit of the heavens; hear (me), (you) helper of mortals, (you) dispenser of undaunted youth, (you who is) bearing from above a gentle ray of light on my life and my martial vigour, so that I can drive away bitter cowardice from my head, and crush the deceptive impulse in the thoughts of my mind; hold back too the sharp fury of my heart, which provokes me to embark upon the chilling cry of battle; but do you give (me) the courage, (O) blessed (one), to stay within the kindly laws of peace, so as to avoid the hostile din of battle and a violent death.  

9) TO ARTEMIS - Εἲς Ἄρτεμις.

(From the references to the Meles, Smyrna and Claros, this short hymn to Artemis, the virgin Goddess of Hunting, (known to the Romans as Diana,) almost certainly has its location in Ionia.)

Sing of Artemis, Muse, sister of the Far-Shooter (i.e. Apollo), a virgin delighting in arrows, bred together with Apollo, and she waters her horses in the Meles (i.e. a river in Smyrna), thick with rushes, and drives her chariot, made completely of gold, swiftly through Smyrna to Claros, rich in vines, where Apollo, with his silver bow, sits waiting for the far-shooting (maiden) who delights in arrows. And so, do you delight in my song, together with all of the goddesses; but first I begin to sing to you and of you, and, having begun with you, I shall move on to another hymn.  

10) TO APHRODITE - Εἲς Ἀφροδίτην.

(This fragmentary hymn is the third Homeric Hymn composed in honour of Aphrodite, the Goddess of Love, known to the Romans as Venus. Like its parallel, Hymn 6, it was the prelude to a song recited at a singing contest. Despite the mention of Cyprus on two occasions in these lines, there is no reason to think it originated there.)

I will sing of the Cyprus-born lady of Cythera, who gives her gracious gifts (i.e. beauty) to men, and always has a lovely smile on her face, and over (it) there shines a lovely bloom. Hail, goddess, ruler of well-built Salamis, and sea-girt Cyprus; grant (me) a charming song. But I shall be mindful both of you and of another song. 

11) TO ATHENA - Εἲς Ἀθηναν.

(As this fragmentary hymn does not end with the rhapsodic transitional formula, it is unlikely that it was the prelude to a recitation at Athens or anywhere else. In any case, the cult of Pallas Athena was common to many Greek cities.) 

Of Pallas Athena, guardian of cities, I begin to sing, dread (goddess), to whom, together with Ares, deeds of war, the sacking of cities, the war-cry and battles are matters of concern, and she protects the host, as it comes and goes. Hail goddess, and grant us good fortune and happiness.  

12) TO HERA - Εἲς Ἥραν.

(This fragmentary hymn to Hera, Queen of the Gods, known to the Romans as Juno, is unique among the Homeric Hymns in that, apart from No 8, which is different in other respects, it has no farewell verse or concluding address to the deity it is honouring. It may well have been the prelude to a longer poem.)

I sing of golden-throned Hera, whom Rhea bore, queen of the immortals, possessing a beauty unsurpassed, sister and wife of loud-thundering Zeus, glorious (lady), whom all the blessed (ones) throughout high Olympus revere and honour like (they do) Zeus, who delights in thunder.  

13) TO DEMETER - Εἲς Δημήτραν.

(This fragmentary hymn is addressed to Demeter, the Goddess of Agriculture, known to the Romans as Ceres, and to her daughter Persephone, known to the Romans as Proserpina, and stems from the longer poem to Demeter (see No. 2). It is obviously the prelude to a recitation. The city she is asked to save may well be Athens.)

I begin to song of the lovely-haired Demeter, the revered goddess, of herself and of her daughter, the very beautiful Persephone. Hail, goddess; save this city and guide my song.   

14) TO THE MOTHER OF THE GODS - Εἲς Μητέρα Θεῶν.  

(The Mother of the Gods was widely worshipped throughout Greece from ancient times and was identified with Rhea, the mother of Zeus, and with the Asiatic Cybele.) 

Sing to me, clear-voiced Muse, daughter of great Zeus, of the Mother of all Gods and all men, to whom the noise of rattles and drums, together with the sound of flutes, was pleasing, as were the cry of wolves and fierce lions, and the echoing hills and wooded water-courses. And so hail to you in my song, and to all the goddesses as well.  

15) TO HERACLES THE LION-HEARTED - Εἲς Ἡρακλέα Λεοντόθυμον.

(While the epithet 'Lion-Hearted' is not assigned to Heracles, known to the Romans as Hercules, in any other work of classical literature, this has no particular significance. Some think this hymn may derive from Attica.) 

I will sing of Heracles, son of Zeus, the mightiest (man) upon the earth, whom Alcmena bore in that beautiful place, Thebes, after she had lain with the cloud-wrapt son of Cronos; he once used to wander over enormous (tracts of) land and sea at the bidding of king Eurystheus (i.e. the king of Tiryns who imposed the Twelve Labours upon Heracles), and he himself accomplished many violent (deeds) and endured many; but from now on he lives happily in the lovely abode of snowy Olympus, and has Hebe with her lovely ankles (as his wife). Hail, lord, son of Zeus; grant (me) virtue and happiness.

16) TO ASCLEPIUS - Εἲς Ἀσκληπιόν.

(Asclepius, known to the Romans as Aesculapius, was the God of Healing, and the son of Apollo. This fragment is clearly the prelude to a longer song.)

I begin to sing of Asclepius, son of Apollo, (and) healer of sicknesses, to whom fair Coronis, the daughter of king Phlegyas, gave birth on the Dotian plain; a source of great joy to men (he was), (and) a soother of evil pains. And so hail to you, lord; to you I pray in my song.  

17) TO THE DIOSCURI - Εἲς Διοσκούρους.

(This poem is addressed to the Dioscuri, the 'Twins' of Leda, Castor and Polydeuces, known to the Romans as Pollux. This poem is clearly an abbreviation of the longer Homeric Hymn to the Dioscuri (see No. 33), and is clearly not a prelude to a longer hymn, as there is no transitional verse. They are called the Tyndaridae, or Tyndarids, as their legal father was Tyndareus, King of Sparta. According to one version of the myth only Polydeuces was the son of Zeus, and Castor was the actual son of Tyndareus. In the same way, of their sisters, Helen was the daughter of Zeus, and Clytemnestra the daughter of Tyndareus.)   

Sing, (you) clear-voiced Muse, of the Tyndarids Castor and Polydeuces, who were born of Olympian Zeus; queenly Leda bore them beneath the heights of Taÿgetus, after she had been secretly overcome by the cloud-wrapt son of Cronos. Hail, (you) sons of Tyndareus, (you) who mount swift steeds. 

18) TO HERMES - Εἲς Ἑρμῆν.

(As in the case of the previous hymn to the Dioscuri, this short hymn is clearly an abbreviation of the longer hymn, No. 4, to Hermes, the Messenger of the Gods, known to the Romans as Mercury.  The final line is a somewhat curious addition to line 10, which is the formulaic ending to a prelude, and it may therefore be a later interpolation.) 

I sing of Cyllenian Hermes, the slayer of Argus (i.e. the hundred-eyed giant, who was guarding Io, the nymph whom Zeus had transformed into a heifer, in the sanctuary of Hera), lord of Cyllene (i.e. the mountain in Arcadia where Hermes was born), and of Arcadia, rich in sheep, the luck-bringing messenger of the immortals, whom Maia, the daughter of Atlas, brought to birth, modest (though she was); and she shunned the throng of the blessed gods, living in a shadowy cave; there the son of Cronos used to lie with the lovely-haired nymph at dead of night, when sweet sleep encompassed the white-armed Hera; and she escaped the notice both of the immortal gods and of mortal men.   

And so, hail to you, son of Zeus and Maia; having begun with you, I, (now) turn to another hymn. Hail, Hermes, giver of grace, guide and giver of good (things).  

19) TO PAN - Εἲς Πᾶνα.

(With its 49 lines, the hymn to Pan, known to the Romans as Faunus, God of the Countryside, Shepherds and Flocks, is the second longest of the shorter Homeric Hymns, and its freshness and charm make it most attractive to read. Since the god Pan does not appear in Greek art until the Fifth Century B.C. and there are references to Pan in the works of Homer or Hesiod, the date of its composition must be considerably later than most of the works in the collection of Homeric Hymns. Its place of composition may well be Arcadia,  a district of mountain people which was always the principal centre of his worship. On the other hand, it may have been composed in Athens, where Pan became a favourite after the Battle of Marathon in 490 B.C., when his cult was first officially organised.)   

Tell me, Muse, about the dear child of Hermes, the goat-footed, two-horned, noise-loving (one), who roams through wooded meadows, together with nymphs accustomed to the dance, who tread on the crest of some sheer cliff, calling upon Pan, the shepherd's god, long-haired (and) unkempt (as he is), who has in his possession every snowy ridge, mountain top and rocky peak. He roams hither and thither through the dense thickets; at one moment (he is) lured by gentle streams, and at another he makes his way among towering crags, and climbs up to the highest peak from which to watch the sheep. Often he courses over the high glistening mountains, and often he goes across the mountain slopes, slaying wild beasts, sharp-sighted (as he is); then, as he returns from the chase at evening only, he makes a sweet song on his playful pipes; nor could she surpass him in melody, that bird, who, when she pours forth her lament amid the leaves of the blossoming springtime, utters her honey-sweet song. At that time, the shrill-singing mountain Nymphs roam around with him nimbly on their feet, and sing beside the spring of black water; and Echo wails around the mountain top. And dancing here and there, the god then moving slowly into the midst, plies nimbly on his feet, and on his back he wears the shabby hide of a lynx, and he rejoices in his heart in high-pitched songs in the soft meadow, where crocus and fragrantly blooming hyacinth mingle in a disorderly fashion in the grass. They sing of the blessed gods and high Olympus; and I wish to tell you of such (a one) as luck-bringing Hermes, excelling (all) the others, how he is the speedy messenger of all the gods, how he came to Arcadia with its many springs, the mother of the flocks, where is his Cyllenian demesne. For there, though he was a god, he was putting out to graze shaggy-shared sheep in the service of a mortal man, for there came upon (him) the languishing desire to be joined in love-making to the lovely-haired daughter of Dryops (i.e. Dryope); and so he brought about a happy marriage. Then, she bore Hermes a dear son in her halls, and from birth he was a marvel to behold, with his goats' feet (and) his two horns, the noise-loving, sweet-laughing (child that he was); but his mother sprang up and fled, and so she left the child, for she was afraid when she saw his uncouth and well-bearded appearance. Then did luck-bringing Hermes take him and put (him) in his arms; and the god rejoiced greatly in his heart. And he went swiftly to the seats of the immortals, covering his child in the compact skins of mountain hares, and set (him) down beside Zeus and showed his son to the rest of the immortals, and then all of the immortals were glad at heart, and Bacchic Dionysus, especially, and they called him Pan, because he delighted the hearts of (them) all. And so to you, Lord, I am propitiating you with a song, but I shall be mindful both of you and of another song.  

20. TO HEPHAESTUS - Εἲς Ἥφαιστον.

(This hymn is dedicated to Hephaestus, known to the Romans as Vulcan, God of Fire, Forges and Handicraft. The fact that Athena is mentioned together with him at the beginning of the poem suggests that it could have been composed in Athens, as that city was the home of a common cult to these two deities, who were worshipped as patrons of all arts and crafts.)

Sing, clear-voiced Muse, of Hephaestus, renowned for his skill in handicraft, who together with bright-eyed Athene taught glorious works to men on earth, even (to men) who in former times used to dwell in caves in the mountains like wild beasts. But now, having learned their crafts through Hephaestus, renowned for his art, they easily pass a life free of anxiety in their own homes for the space of a whole year. 

But be gracious, Hephaestus, and grant me skill and happiness. 

21. TO APOLLO - Εἲς Ἀπόλλωνα. 

(For information about Apollo, please see the introduction to the translation of Homeric Hymn No. 3, on this blog, dated 1 August 2020.) 

Phoebus (i.e. the epithet that regularly precedes the name of Apollo), of you, even the swan sings in a clear voice through the flapping of his wings, as he alights on the bank beside the eddying river Peneus (i.e. the name of a river in Thessaly, mentioned in Book II of the 'Iliad', or perhaps of a river of the same name in Elis in the Peloponnese); and to you does the sweet-sounding minstrel always sing with his shrill lyre both first and last. And so, hail to you. lord, and I propitiate you with my song. 

22. TO POSEIDON - Εἲς ποσειδῶνα.

(This hymn may be a prayer for the safety of sailors at sea, rather than the prelude to a longer song, although the beginning does perhaps suggest the latter. The Helicon referred to in line 3, could be the Boeotian mountain of that name, but it is more likely to refer to Helice, a town in Achaea on the Corinthian Gulf in the northern Peloponnese, which, together with its neighbouring town, Aegae, is mentioned in Book VIII of the 'Iliad' as sacred to Poseidon, the God of the Sea, known to the Romans as Neptune.) 

I begin to sing about Poseidon, the great god, mover of the earth and the barren sea, (god of) the deep, who (also) holds Helicon and wide Aegae. A twofold office the gods allotted you, (O) Earth-shaker, to be a tamer of horses and a saviour of ships. Hail, Poseidon, earth-mover, dark-haired (god), and succour the mariners, (O) blessed (one), with a kindly heart. 

23. TO THE MOST HIGH SON OF CRONOS - Εἲς Ὕπατον κρονίδην.

(The reference to Themis, the Goddess of Justice, indicates that this fragmentary hymn is addressed to Zeus, known to the Romans as Jupiter, in his capacity as God of Law and Righteousness.)

I will sing of Zeus, the chief and the greatest of the gods, the far-seeing lord, the fulfiller, who speaks words of wisdom to Themis, who sits leaning towards (him). Be gracious, (O) far-seeing son of Cronos, the noblest and the greatest. 

24. TO HESTIA -  Εἲς Ἑστίαν.

(This hymn is addressed to Hestia, daughter of Cronos and Rhea, and sister of Zeus, Goddess of the Hearth and Home, known to the Romans as Vesta. The reference to Pytho reflects Hestia's close connection to her nephew Apollo's sacred enclosure at Delphi, where sacred fire was permanently maintained by widows at her Hearth in the Prytaneum. Many think this is a fragment of a longer hymn.)

Hestia, (you) who tends the sacred house of Apollo the Far-shooter at sacred Pytho, moist olive-oil is ever dripping from your locks. Come into this house, come with one mind together with Zeus, wise in counsel, and at the same time bestow grace on my song.

25. TO THE MUSES AND APOLLO - Εἲς Μούσας Καὶ Ἀπόλλωνα.

(There is also a reference to the joint worship of Apollo and the Muses on line 450 of Homeric Hymn 4, addressed to Hermes.)

I will begin with the Muses, and Apollo and Zeus; for (it is) through the Muses and Apollo the Far-shooter (that) there are men on the earth who sing and play the lyre, but through Zeus (there are) kings; fortunate is he, whomever the Muses love; his voice flows sweetly from his mouth. Hail, children of Zeus, and honour my song; but I shall be mindful of you and of another song.

26. TO DIONYSUS - Εἲς Διόνυσον.

(This hymn was no doubt composed for some festival of Dionysus. According to Homeric Hymn 1, also dedicated to Dionysus, Nysa, the place where Dionysus was reared, was in Phoenicia.)

I begin to sing of loud-shouting Dionysus, crowned with ivy (as he is), the splendid son of Zeus and renowned Semele, whom the lovely-haired Nymphs took to their bosoms from the lord, their father, and nurtured and zealously reared in the vales of Nysa; and by the grace of his father he grew up in a sweet-smelling cavern, being reckoned among the immortals. But, when the goddesses had raised him to sing a lot, then he began to go backwards and forwards through the wooded glades, wreathed with laurel and ivy; and the Nymphs used to follow after (him), and he became their leader; and their outcry took hold of the boundless forest. 

And so, hail to you, O Dionysus, rich in grapes; and grant that we should come again to this season of rejoicing, and from this time onwards for many a year. 

27. TO ARTEMIS - Εἲς Ἄρτεμιν.   

(This hymn is somewhat longer than the earlier fragmentary hymn to Artemis (No. 9). However that hymn was probably composed in Ionia, whereas this one is more likely to relate to Delphi.) 

I sing of Artemis of the golden arrows, boisterous, revered maiden, shooter of deer, delighting in arrows, own sister of Apollo of the golden sword. Delighting in the chase over shadowy hills and windy peaks, she draws her bow and dispatches grievous shafts; the crests of the lofty mountains tremble, and the tangled woodland resounds fearfully with the cry of wild beasts, and the earth quakes, as does the sea, full of fish; but she, with a strong heart, turns about in all directions, destroying the race of wild beasts. But, when the arrow-shooting huntress was full of good cheer, and was glad at heart, she slackens her curved bow, and goes to the great house of her dear brother Phoebus Apollo, to the fertile land of Delphi, to arrange the lovely dancing of the Muses and Graces. There she hangs up her unstrung bow and her arrows, and with lovely clothing on her body, she leads the way and initiates the dances; and the (others) send forth their heavenly voice in hymns to fair-ankled Leto, how she bore children (who) stood out (as) the best of the immortals, both in counsel and in deeds.    

Hail, (you) children of Zeus and lovely-haired Leto; but I will be mindful both of you and of another song. 

28. TO ATHENA - Εἴς Ἀθήναν.

(The style of this hymn to Athena, or Athene, known to the Romans as Minerva, is so similar to the preceding one, i.e. No. 27, that it is likely it was composed by the same person. 

I begin to sing of Pallas Athena, the glorious goddess, bright-eyed, resourceful, possessor of a relentless heart, revered virgin, protector of cities, valiant, Tritogeneia (n.b. the exact meaning of this epithet is unknown), whom Zeus the counsellor himself begat from his august head, arrayed for war in shining golden armour; and awe seized all the immortals as they gazed; but she rushed forward eagerly from his immortal head before Zeus, who bears the aegis, shaking a sharp spear; great Olympus began to quiver in dread beneath the might of the bright-eyed (maiden); and the earth round about cried out fearfully; and then the sea was aroused, and stirred by dark waves; and foam suddenly burst forth; and the brilliant son of Hyperion (i.e. Helios, the Sun) checked his swift steeds for quite a time, until the maiden Pallas Athena removed the godlike armour from her shoulders; and Zeus the counsellor rejoiced. 

And so hail to you, daughter of Zeus, who bears the aegis; but I will be mindful of you and of another song too. 

29. TO HESTIA - Εἴς Ἑστίαν. 

(This is the second Homeric Hymn to Hestia, known to the Romans as Vesta, the first one, No. 24, being most fragmentary. With regard to libations or drink offerings, Hestia was only honoured in this way at the beginning of feasts, but in sacrificial feasts Hestia would have been so honoured at the end of them as well. In this hymn, Hestia is closely linked with her nephew Hermes, known to the Romans as Mercury. This is perhaps because Hestia was the goddess of the household and the hearth, and Hermes, among his many functions, the god of boundaries.)

(O) Hestia, (you) who in the lofty dwellings of all the immortal gods and (those) of the men who walk on earth, have gained an everlasting place and the highest honour, for you have a splendid and a prized gift; for without you there can be no large banquet of mortals except in a place where one begins by pouring sweet wine (i.e. a libation) to Hestia both first and last; and you, the slayer of Argus, Zeus' and Maia's son, messenger of the blessed (gods) (i.e. Hermes), (you) with your rod of gold, giver of good things, (and) being gracious, come to my aid, together with the honoured and beloved (one) (i.e. Hestia). (Come) dwell in this glorious house, knowing the dear (things) in one another's hearts. For with both of you being aware of the noble actions of earthly men, you followed their wisdom and their earthly strength. 

Hail, Daughter of Cronos, and you also, Hermes of the golden rod; but I shall be mindful both of you and of another song.     

30. TO (EARTH), THE MOTHER OF ALL - Εἲς Τῆν Μητέρα Πάντων.

(This hymn is dedicated to Gaea (i.e. Earth), known to the Romans as Rhea. Although she is called 'mother of the gods' in general in line 17, in strict Hesiodic mythology she was the mother of Cronos and the Titans.) 

I will sing of well-founded Gaea, the eldest of all beings. who feeds all (creatures) that are in the world, all (those) that walk upon land, all (creatures) that are at sea, and all (things) that fly; these she feeds from her (store of) wealth. Through you, (O) queen, (men) are happy in their children and blessed in their harvests, and to you is the power to give life to mortal men and to take (it) away; happy (is) he, whom you willingly honour in your mind; he has all (things) in abundance. His food-giving land is laden (with corn), and he thrives in his fields with his cattle, and his house is filled with good things. Such (men) rule their city among fair women in an orderly manner, and much wealth and riches accompany (them); their sons exult in cheerful merriment, and their maiden (daughters) play, skipping happily in floral dances over the soft flowers of the meadow; (such are those,) whom you honour, holy Goddess, bountiful spirit.  

Hail, (O) Mother of the Gods, wife of starry Uranus, and, in return for this ode, readily grant (me) a pleasurable livelihood; but I will be mindful of you, and of another song also. 

31. TO HELIOS - Εἴς Ἥλιον.

(The concluding formula of this hymn shows that it was the prelude to a recitation. The place of composition is unknown, although the worship of Helios, known to the Romans as Sol, i.e. the Sun, was widespread across the Peloponnese and on the island of Rhodes in particular. Its timing is also unclear, but the description of Helios as a driver is not found in the works of Homer, and suggests it was written in centuries later than the Sixth or Seventh.) 

And now, (O) Muse Calliope, (i.e. the Muse of Epic Verse), the daughter of Zeus, do you begin to sing of shining Helios (i.e. the Sun), whom ox-eyed Euryphaessa bore to the son of Gaea (i.e. Earth) and starry Uranus (i.e. Heaven); for Hyperion wedded glorious Euryphaessa, his own sister, who bore him lovely children, rosy-armed Eos (i.e. Dawn), and lovely-haired Selene (i.e. the Moon), and tireless Helios, (who is) like the immortals, and who shines upon mortals and the deathless gods, as he rides in his chariot; and he gazes piercingly with his eyes from his golden helmet; bright rays beam dazzlingly from him, (streaming) from his temples, and the shining locks of hair from his head gracefully enclose his conspicuous face; and a fair finely-worked garment gleams upon his body in a blast of winds; and his horses (run) strongly under (him). So then, when he has halted his golden-yoked chariot and horses, there he rests upon heaven's peak (i.e. at noon), until he conducts (them) wondrously again through heaven to the Ocean. 

Hail (to you), lord, and may you freely grant (me) a pleasurable life. Having started with you, I shall celebrate the race of heroic demigods endowed with speech, whose deeds the goddesses (i.e. the Muses) have revealed to mortals.

32. TO SELENE - Εἲς Σελήνην. 

(The resemblance of this to the previous hymn to Helios is so close that it is likely they were both written by the same author at about the same time. However, the description of Selene, known to the Romans as Luna. i.e. the Moon, as winged seems to involve a confusion of her with her sister Eos (Dawn), who is regularly portrayed in classical literature as having wings, whereas the Moon is never so portrayed elsewhere. Another anomaly is the appearance in line 15 of Selene's daughter, Pandia. Not only does Pandia not appear elsewhere in classical literature, but the purpose of her introduction here is quite unclear.)  

(Now O) sweet-voiced Muses, daughters of Cronos' son, Zeus, well versed in song, engage in singing of the long-winged Moon; the heavenly gleam from her immortal head encircles the earth, and great beauty arises from her glowing light; the unlit air now beams (with light) from her golden crown, and the rays beam clearly whenever divine Selene, having bathed her lovely body in (the waters) of the Ocean, donned her gleaming raiment, and, having yoked her team of shining strong-necked steeds, she eagerly drives her fair-maned horses forward in the evening at the full of the month. Now is her great orbit full, and then, as she waxes, are her beams from heaven most bright; so, she becomes a token and a sign to mortal (men). Once, the son of Cronos was joined to her in love and the (marriage) bed; and she conceived and bore a daughter, Pandia, who possessed a remarkable beauty among the immortal gods.

Hail, divine Selene, white-armed goddess, benevolent queen with lovely hair; beginning with you, I will sing of the renown of heroic demi-gods, whose deeds minstrels, the attendants of the Muses, celebrate from their lovely mouths. 

 

33. TO THE DIOSCURI - Εἲς Διοσκούρους.  

(Unlike the shorter fragmentary hymn to the Dioscuri, Castor and Polydeuces, known to the Romans as Pollux, (see No. 17), this is the prelude to a longer poem.) 

(O) sharp-glancing Muses, tell of the Tyndarids, the sons of Zeus, the glorious children of Leda, (the one) with the beautiful ankles, both horse-taming Castor and blameless Polydeuces, whom she bore beneath the peak of great Taÿgetus, after she had joined herself in love-making with the cloud-wrapt son of Cronos, children (who are) saviours of earthly men, and of swift-faring ships, when wintry gales storm across the relentless sea; then, the (men) from the ships call upon the sons of Zeus (i.e. the Dioscuri), vowing (to sacrifice) white lambs (to them) when they climb to the top of the deck; but the strong wind and the waves of the sea put the (ship) under water; then, suddenly they are seen, darting through the air on tawny wings, and, at once, they allay the blasts of the cruel winds, and calm the waves on the surface of the gray sea; fair signs (they are) of deliverance from toil; and, when they saw (them), they were glad and they came to the end of their painful labour.   

Hail, (you) sons of Tyndareus, (you) who mount swift steeds; but I will be mindful of you and of another song also. 

CAESAR

For Latin scholars, translating extracts from Caesar's "Gallic Wars" is an evocative, if not nostalgic, experience, because for so many of us our earliest Latin textbooks featured sentences and passages taken from this famous work, albeit these were usually heavily abridged for young learners. Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.), while perhaps the greatest general and statesman in Roman history, was also one of the foremost exemplars of Latin prose in the Late Republic (i.e. 80-40 B.C.), a period about which we are astonishingly well informed, mainly through the histories of Caesar and Sallust, and the letters, recorded speeches, and philosophical works of the great Cicero. Although Cicero's writing is generally considered to provide the highest development of Latin prose, it is perhaps a little too florid and rhetorical to be ideal as a basis for the initial steps in the learning of the language. On the other hand, the clear and straightforward qualities of Caesar's prose make it suitable for this purpose, and for this reason it has often been the model around which successive generations of European students have acquired a facility in the Latin language.

Having formed the First Triumvirate with Pompey and Crassus, Caesar became consul of Rome for the first time in 59, and, after administering a number of important reforms, he became governor of Transalpine Gaul, which in a number of epic campaigns he conquered during the years 58-51, while at the same time leading two expeditions to Britain in 55 and 54. When the Senate sought to remove his command from him before he could resume the consulship, he crossed the Rubicon in 49 and initiated the Civil War (49-45), which he won decisively. He was appointed dictator and piloted a number of significant further reforms, including the introduction of the Julian Calendar in 46. When he was appointed dictator for life in 44, he was treacherously murdered by a group of his former supporters on the Ides of March, two days before he was due to depart for a campaign against the Parthians. Civil War broke our again, but following the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C. Caesar's adopted son, Octavianus (later known as Augustus) seized sole power and thus confirmed the demise of the Republic and the foundation of the Imperial system, which his adopted father had played the pivotal role in founding.   

The close relationship between Caesar and his troops was undoubtedly at the heart of his greatness as a general. Apart from his strategic and tactical genius, Caesar's ability to strike a rapport with his legionaries was remarkable. Caesar's record of almost unbroken success in Gaul from 58 to 51, and later during the Civil War from 49 to 45, testifies to his remarkable qualities as a military leader. Two tributes to him are quoted below. The first is from the introduction to "Caesar: The Conquest of Gaul", translated by S.A. Handford, Penguin Classics, 1951:  "Caesar's own contribution was that of a superb tactician and military leader. No man ever knew better how to surprise and baffle his opponents by speed of movement, or how to snatch victory out of a battle that was very nearly a defeat by throwing in reserves at just the right place and the right time. No man ever won greater respect or more affectionate loyalty from his troops. For eight years of hard fighting, hard digging, and hard living, they gave him everything he asked of them" (p. 22). The second quotation comes from "Julius Caesar, man, soldier, and tyrant", by Major-General J.F.C. Fuller, Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1965: "As a leader of men Caesar stood head and shoulders above the generals of his day, and it is more as a fighting than as a thinking soldier that his generalship has been judged ... First, it must be borne in mind that normally the battles of his day were parallel engagements in which the aim was to exhaust and then to penetrate the enemy's front. They were methodical operations in which, when both sides were similarly trained and organized, success depended largely on superiority of numbers. Caesar modified these tactics by basing his campaigns, not on superiority of numbers and meticulous preparations but on celerity and audacity. By surprising his opponent he caught him off-guard, and got him so thoroughly rattled that either he refused his challenge to fight and in consequence lost his prestige, or, should he respond, was morally half-beaten before the engagement took place" (p. 321). Another cause of his success was the confidence which his men had in him. This is demonstrated in the aftermath of the defeat at Gergovia in 52, when Caesar lectures his soldiers for disobeying his orders. The implicit message of Caesar's speech was that the Roman army might not always be victorious, but that Caesar himself was invincible. This was certainly the message which Caesar wished to convey in his dispatches to Rome, and his soldiers believed it. 

Caesar was also a great orator and prose writer. The only writings of his which have survived are his war commentaries, the "De Bello Gallico" (The Gallic Wars) and the "De Bello Civili" (The Civil War). The first is comprised of seven books, each one covering a year in his Gallic campaigns and his visits to Britain, with an eighth book written by his associate Aulus Hirtius, covering the final two years (51-50); the second comprises three books written by Caesar himself, with Book III leading up to the famous battle of Pharsalus in 48, where Caesar's army, despite being seriously outnumbered, won a glorious victory over Pompey, and a further three books, traditionally attributed to Caesar, but definitely written by others. While much much of what we know of Caesar comes from these writings of his, other important sources are the biographies of Caesar written by Plutarch of Chaeronea (46-119 A.D.) in Greek, and Suetonius (69-122) in Latin, also available on this blog (see the entries dated 1st August and 29th October 2014 respectively). The "Roman Histories" of the Greek historians, Appian of Alexandria (95-165) (see the entry on this blog dated 25 August 2015), and Cassius Dio from Bithynian Nicaea (155-235) also include information relevant to Caesar's life and career.  

The quality of Caesar's writings.

Caesar's prose is, as stated above, relatively straightforward to translate. It is full of instances of the Ablative Absolute construction, which is perhaps the quintessential characteristic of the Latin language (see Sabidius' article "Ablative Absolutes" on this blog dated 20th May 2012). An Ablative Absolute is a phrase detached from the main clause of a sentence, at the heart of which is a participle, or verbal adjective, agreeing with a noun or pronoun in the ablative case (viz. an ablative of attendant circumstances), when this noun or pronoun is not the subject or object of the main verb. Because orthodox verbs in Latin lack the form of a past participle in the active voice, ablative absolutes using past participles passive are often necessary to compensate for this lack, with the grammatical sense having to be inverted into the passive voice. In translating into English, it is common to restore the active construction and thus to attach the participle to the subject or object of the main verb, something which is not possible in Latin through the lack of a past participle active. At the same time Ablative Absolutes are often used, as indeed are participles in general, as an alternative to subordinate clauses. When translating into English, it is common to replace the participle with such a subordinate clause, e.g. a temporal or concessive clause. The use of participles in general, and Ablative Absolutes in particular, facilitates that conciseness of expression and economy in the use of words which are hallmarks of the Latin language. 

Other features of Caesar's prose writing which are visible in this work are his use of the Gerund and Gerundive (for information about these constructions the reader is referred to Sabidius' article "Gerunds and Gerundives" published on this blog on 6th March 2010, and also his articles, "Nunc est Bibendum" published January 17th 2011, and "Gerunds and Gerundives: Exemplification" published 23 January 2012), and the occasional use of the impersonal passive construction. Another feature of Caesar's historical writing is his use of the third person in his narration of events. Although he is writing of events, many of which he witnessed in person, and he is the principal agent of the story, his use of the third person gives a more impersonal and impartial flavour to his account than if he had written in the first person.

Caesar's constant recourse to the use of the Ablative Absolute and Indirect Discourse can readily be explained by the nature of his writing. He classifies both the "De Bello Gallico" and the "De Bello Civili" as "Commentarii", (i.e. reports or notes), upon which a more polished work of historical writing might later be based. Ablative Ablatives allow a large amount of information to be processed with a minimum of words, and represent encapsulated statements of fact which serve as background to what is being said in the rest of the sentence or paragraph. Indirect Discourse, as used by him is a form of 'barebones reporterage', or compressed statement, in which much information, normally important to the structure of the sentence, such as person, and the distinction between the subject and object, is stripped away, because it is obvious. Such linguistic usage was highly suitable to a military context, in which dispatches to the Senate and People of Rome from the front, or communiques to subordinates, might be composed, when compressed, yet factual language would be seen as a suitable example of Roman pragmatism and practicality. While this accounts for what is otherwise particular to Caesar's style, what is so interesting is that the quality of his writing was such that it created a genre in itself. Indeed, ancient sources describe him as a leader or proponent of the puristic style of Latin writing, called the Attic style, as opposed to the more highly wrought or aphoristic style, of which Cicero was seen as the most significant exemplar. Nevertheless, Cicero, who in the tradition of classical literature would normally have seen a polished style as an essential quality of historical writing, was to say of Caesar's "Commentarii" in his "Brutus", written in 46, that, "They are like nude figures, upright and beautiful, stripped of all ornament of style as if they had removed a garment. His aim was to provide source material for others who might wish to write history, and perhaps he has gratified the insensitive, who may wish to use their curling-tongs on his work; but men of good sense he has deterred from writing." What he meant, and goes on to make clear, was that Caesar's writing was so elegant in its lucidity and simplicity that only the unwise would seek to improve on it. It is important to stress the quality of Caesar's Latin, because, although he is the first author to whom young students of Latin have traditionally been introduced, his Latin can actually be quite difficult to translate. Terseness and compression are qualities that are hallmarks of the Latin language as a whole, and in Caesar's case the impersonal military concision which one associates with his Ablative Absolutes are especially good examples of these qualities; but, as the poet Horace in his "Ars Poetica" was later to say: "Brevis esse laboro, obscurus fio (I labour to be brief, and I become obscure)". There are perhaps moments when this is true of Caesar's prose as well, since he frequently omits words which he considers can be understood from an earlier sentence or are obvious from the context as a whole, but for the most part the clarity and brevity of his style is admirable. At the same time, his prose style, while often being terse and restrained, never becomes monotonous or repetitive. 

Works written by or about Caesar made available in translation by Sabidius (the dates of translation are shown in brackets):  

Caesar: "The Gallic Wars":

Book I (1 January 2011).

Book II (18 June 2012).

Book III (1 May 2012).

Book IV (6 October 2012).

Book V (31 August 2010).

Book VI (7 August 2013).

Book VII (3 February 2013).

Caesar: "The Civil War":

Book I (15 October 2020).

Book II (2 January 2021).

Book III (5 November 2013).

Plutarch: "The Life of Caesar":

(1 August 2014).

Suetonius: "The Life of Caesar":

(29 October 2014).

 

Appian: Extracts from "The Civil Wars", Book II:

(25 August 2015).

HOMER: "ODYSSEY": BOOK XIV: IN EUMAEUS' HUT.

HOMER: "ODYSSEY": BOOK XIV: IN EUMAEUS' HUT. 

Introduction:

At the end of Book XIII, the goddess Athene, having altered Odysseus' appearance to that of an old man, sends him off to meet with his swineherd, Eumaeus. Odysseus finds Eumaeus' hut and is kindly received by him, although due to his disguise Eumaeus does not recognise him (see ll. 1-80). In ll. 81-180 Odysseus learns of the arrogant behaviour of the Suitors and also of the potential risks facing his son Telemachus. When Eumaeus inquires about the circumstances of his visitor, Odysseus provides him with a false story about his identity and history, in which he portrays himself as a Cretan adventurer, who, after returning from the Trojan war, has fallen on hard times  (see ll. 181-313). Amongst the fictions in his tale is that he hears news of Odysseus while he is visiting Thesprotia (see ll. 314-359), but Eumaeus refuses to believe this, although the supposed Cretan affirms it on his life (see ll. 360-406). In the final sections of this book (ll. 407-533), they and their comrades enjoy a good supper and settle down for a comfortable night, while the Cretan adds a further tale about his experiences at Troy. In terms of the Odyssey as a whole, Book XIV is somewhat of an interlude, with no real action taking place, beyond the domestic circumstances of Eumaeus' hut. However, we do learn of Eumaeus'  abiding love for his master Odysseus and his deep grief at what he believes to be his death. Despite his lowly status as a slave, Eumaeus' loyalty to Odysseus is perhaps the most striking aspect of the Book.   

Ll. 1-47. Odysseus finds Eumaeus.

But he (i.e. Odysseus) went forth out of the harbour on a rough track through the hills to a wooded area, and (a place) where Athene had shown him (where to meet) the goodly swineherd (i.e. Eumaeus), who, of (all) the domestic servants whom he had acquired, had been the most concerned for his substance. 

Then, he found him sitting in the porch (of his house), where his lofty courtyard was built in a conspicuous spot, fine, and spacious, and circular; the swineherd himself had built it for his absent master's swine without the knowledge of his mistress (i.e. Penelope) and the old man Laertes, and he surrounded it with quarried stones and prickly shrubs; and outside (it) he drove stakes here and there into the ground; closely-packed and thickly set (they were), after he had split asunder the dark (core) of the oak-tree. And within the yard he had made twelve sties (as) sleeping quarters for the swine; and in each (one of them) fifty pigs were kept, sleeping on the ground - brood sows (they were); the boars slept outside, (but of these there were) far fewer; for the godlike suitors had lessened their (numbers by) eating (them), since the swineherd always supplied the pick of all his well-nourished fatted hogs; and there were three hundred and sixty of them. And beside (them) always slept four dogs, like wild beasts they were, which the swineherd, that chief of men, had reared. He himself was fitting sandals around his feet, cutting (them) from some well-tanned ox-hide; three others of them had gone in various directions with the pigs that had been assembled; and the fourth he sent forth to the city to bring with (it) forcibly (a boar), so that they might slay(it) and satisfy their souls with its flesh.  

Suddenly, the baying hounds caught sight of Odysseus, and rushed upon him, barking loudly; but, in his cunning, Odysseus sat down, and the staff fell from his hand. Then, he would have suffered an ignominious injury, even in his own farmstead; but the swineherd went quickly after (them) with swift steps, and darted through the gateway, and the hide fell from his hand. And he called to the dogs, and drove them in all directions with a shower of stones; then, he spoke to his master: "O old man, to be sure, the dogs would all but have torn you to shreds in a moment, and on me you would have shed your reproaches. And the gods have also given me other pains and sorrows; for (it is) for my godlike master that I abide here in grief and mourning, and rear fat swine for other (men) to eat; yet, he wanders, perhaps in want of food, over the land and cities of men who speak in strange tongues, if perchance he still lives and sees the light of the sun. But (come) follow (me), old man, and let us go to the hut, so that, after you have satisfied your heart's desire for bread and wine, you can tell (me) from where you are come, and all the many troubles you have suffered."  

Ll. 48-71. Eumaeus welcomes Odysseus.

So he spoke, and the goodly swineherd led the way to his hut, and took (him) in and sat (him) down, and he made (him) a pile of thickly-grown brushwood, and spread on top of (it) the skin of a shaggy wild goat - his own mattress (it was), large and hairy. Then, Odysseus rejoiced that he had given him such a welcome, and spoke these words of thanks (to him): "Stranger, may Zeus and the other immortal gods grant you what you most desire, since you have given me such a hearty welcome."

And now, Eumaeus the swineherd, you (it was who) said to him in reply: "Stranger, it is not right for me to slight a stranger, not even if one were to come in a worse state than you. For all strangers and beggars are (here) in the place of Zeus; for a gift from us, though small, is welcome; for it is the lot of slaves ever to be in fear that their masters would lord it over (them,) young as they (are). For, in truth, the gods have hindered the return of him who would have loved me heartily, and have bestowed acquisitions (on me), a house, and a plot of land, and a much sought-after wife, such (things) as a kindly master gives to his servant, who has worked very hard for him, and whose work a god has prospered, just as this work of mine, to which I give my attention (here), has prospered. For this, my master would have greatly rewarded me, if he had grown old here; but he has perished - as the breed of Helen should have perished, while on their knees, since she has loosened the knees of many men; for he too went off to Ilium, (the land) of fine horses, on account of the honour of Agamemnon, in order to fight the Trojans.     

Ll. 72-108. Eumaeus' hospitality. 

So saying, he (i.e. Eumaeus) quickly fastened his tunic, and went his way to the sties, where the tribes of pigs were confined. Taking two from there, he brought (them) in and slaughtered both (of them), singed (them) and chopped (them) up, and stuck (their pieces) on spits. When he had roasted all (of these) he brought (them) in and placed (them) beside Odysseus, hot on their spits; and he sprinkled white barley-meal (over them); then he mixed honey-sweet wine in an ivy-wood drinking cup, and he himself sat down facing him, and, encouraging (him) to eat, he said: "Eat now, O stranger, such (food) as may be produced by slaves, (that is, the meat) of young pigs; but the suitors eat these fatted hogs (of mine), having no thought in their hearts of (divine) vengeance, nor (showing) any pity. Now, the blessed gods love not such cruel deeds, but they do honour justice and acts of decency in men. Even our implacable enemies, who intrude on someone else's land, and to whom Zeus has granted booty, and who, having filled their ships, go on board to return home, even in their case a great (fear) of divine vengeance falls upon their hearts. But these (men) (i.e. the suitors) have certainly learned something, and they have heard some divine voice (telling) of his dreadful death, (seeing) that they are not willing to woo properly, nor to return to their own (homes), but they high-handedly devour our substance at their ease, nor are they (at all) sparing of (it). For, as many as are the nights and days (that come) from Zeus, on each they sacrifice not one victim, nor only two; and the wine, which they draw forth in an arrogant fashion, they waste. For, in truth, his livelihood was beyond telling (i.e. he was unspeakably rich); not one of the great men (had) so much (wealth), neither on the dark(-soiled) mainland, nor on Ithaca itself; nor is the wealth of twenty men joined together as great (as his); I shall show you what I mean. On the mainland, (he has) twelve herds (of cattle); as many flocks of sheep, as many droves of swine, as many scattered herds of goats, do foreign men and his own herdsmen tend. And here scattered herds of goats, eleven in all, graze on the remotest parts (of the island), and over (them) trusty men keep watch. Each one of these drives up (one of) his flock for them (i.e. the suitors) on a daily basis, that one of the fatted goats, which seems (to him to be) the best. But I tend and keep watch over those swine, and I carefully choose and send them the best of the pigs."      

Ll. 109-147. Eumaeus praises his master Odysseus. 

So he (i.e. Eumaeus) spoke, and the other (i.e. Odysseus) eagerly ate the meat and drank the wine avidly (and) in silence, and plotted trouble for the suitors. But, when he had dined and had met his appetite for food, he filled the cup, from which he had been drinking, and gave (it) to him, brim full of wine; and he (i.e. Eumaeus) took it and was glad at heart. Then, he (i.e. Odysseus) addressed him and spoke these winged words: "O friend, who (was this man who) bought you with his wealth, (a man) so very rich and powerful, as you say (he was)? Now, you say he died for the sake of Agamemnon's honour. Tell me (his name), in case I might remember who this man is. For perhaps Zeus and the other immortal gods know whether I have seen him and can bring tidings (of him); for I have wandered far and wide."  

Then, the swineherd, a leader of men, answered him: "O old man, no travelling man, that has come with news of him, has convinced his wife and his son (of its truth), but these wandering men (i.e. tramps), when they are receiving (care and) attention, tell lies, and are not concerned to speak the truth. Whoever, in his wanderings, comes to the land of Ithaca goes to my mother and tells a beguiling story; and she receives and welcomes (him) in a kindly fashion and questions (him) on every detail, and the tears fall from her eyelids as she laments, as is the custom of a woman when her husband dies in another place. And readily would you too, old man, make up a story, if someone would give you a cloak and a tunic (as) raiment. And, as for him, the spirit must have left (his body), and, by now, the dogs and the swift-flying birds of prey are likely to have torn the flesh from his bones. Or fishes have eaten him in the sea, and his bones lie (here) on the shore, deeply engulfed in the sand. So, he died there, and, in the future, grief has arisen in all his friends, and especially in me; for, wherever I go, I shall never find a master so kind (as he was), not even if I should come again to the house of my father and mother, where I was born in the first place, and they themselves reared me. But yet, I do not now mourn them as much (as him), eager though I am to behold them with my eyes and to be in my native-land; but a longing for Odysseus, who is gone, takes hold of me. Yet, O stranger, I am reluctant to speak his name, even though he is not here; for greatly did he love and care for me in his heart; but, even though he is far away, I call him my trusty (lord and brother)."  

Ll. 148-190. Odysseus assures Eumaeus that his master will return to Ithaca. 

Then, the much-enduring godlike Odysseus spoke to him again: "O friend, since you refuse to believe (it), and you declare that he will never return, and your mind (is) always in a state of disbelief, therefore I shall not merely tell you, but (I shall say it) with an oath, that Odysseus is coming back; and let there be an immediate reward for me for bringing good news, whenever he shall come and reach his household; but before that, however sore my need, I shall accept nothing. For that (man) who, giving way to poverty, tells a deceitful (tale) is (as) hateful to me as the gates of Hades. Now, may Zeus, before (all other) gods, and this board of hospitality, and this hearth of peerless Odysseus, which I am approaching, be aware, that, in truth, all these (things) will happen as I say. Within the course of this very lunar cycle, Odysseus will be here. As one month ends and the next one begins, he will return home and take his revenge on all those who here dishonour his wife and his noble son." 

And to him did you, swineherd Eumaeus, say in reply: "O old man, I shall not have to pay that reward for good tidings, nor shall Odysseus ever come home; but drink in peace and let us turn our minds to other (things) apart from (these), and do not remind me of these (things); for, in truth, the heart in my breast grieves, whenever anyone reminds (me) of my trusty lord. But, now indeed, let us let go of your oath, but may Odysseus come (home), just as I wish him (to do), and (so does) Penelope, and the old man Laertes, and godlike Telemachus. But now I grieve unceasingly for Telemachus, the son, whom godlike Odysseus begot. When the gods made him grow like a young sapling, and I thought that he would be in no way inferior among men to his dear father, wonderful, (as he was,) in shape and form, then one of the immortals, or some man, marred the well-balanced mind within him; and he went to sacred Pylos in pursuit of news of his father; and the princely suitors will lie in wait for him as he makes his way home, so that the race of godlike Arceisius (i.e. the father of Laertes, Odysseus' father) will disappear from Ithaca without trace. But now indeed we shall let him be, whether he may be taken, or whether he may escape, if the son of Cronos should hold out his hand to give him protection. But come (now), old man, do you tell me of your own troubles, and tell me of them in reality, so that I may know full well; who (you are, and) from where among men (do you come)? Where (is) your city, and (who are) your parents? On what kind of ship did you come, and how did sailors bring you to Ithaca? Who did they profess to be? For I do not think that you came here in any way on foot?" 

Ll. 191-233. Odysseus pretends to be a Cretan.

Then, Odysseus, (that man) of many wiles, said to him in reply: "Well then, I shall tell you everything exactly. Would that we two might now have both food and sweet wine for some time, while we remain inside the hut, so as to feast in quiet, as others go about their work; then, I might easily spend a whole year without completing my account of the sorrows of my heart, such as all those (hardships) I have endured by the will of the gods.

"I profess (to be) of the stock of broad Crete, the son of a wealthy man; and many other sons were also born and reared in his hall, the legitimate (sons) of a (lawful) wife; but the mother (that) bore me was bought (as) a concubine; yet, Castor, son of Hylax, honoured me (as) an equal to his lawfully begotten (children). I claim to be the son of a (man) who was, at that time, honoured as a god among Cretans for his prosperous estate, and his wealth and his splendid sons. But, in truth, the fates of death came (and) bore him off to the house of Hades; then, let me tell you, his high-handed sons divided up his property among themselves and cast lots for (it), but to me they gave a very small (portion), and assigned (me) a dwelling. But I won myself a wife from some people rich in land, on account of my valour, for I was neither idle nor cowardly; but now all that (strength) has already left (me), but I think that, when you see the stubble, you will know (what the harvest was) like; for, in truth, great misery takes a very tight hold of me. For, at that time, Ares and Athene had certainly endowed me with courage and the might to break through the ranks of men; whenever I were to pick the best men for an ambush, sowing dark seeds for my foes, never did my manly spirit foresee my death, but I would be by far the first to leap out and slay with my spear the enemy warriors, who had given way to me by foot. Such (a man) was I in war; but labour (in the fields) was not welcome to me, nor (was) that household management which leads to the upbringing of splendid children, but ships with oars were always dear to me, as were wars, and polished spears, and arrows, (things) of woe, which are wont to make others shudder. But those (things) were dear to me, I suppose, which a god had put into my heart; for one man finds delight in the work of others. For, before the sons of the Achaeans had set foot on (the land of) Troy, I had led warriors and swift-faring ships against foreign men, and much loot came into my hands. Of these (things), I took out what was pleasing (to me), and, afterwards I obtained much (more) by lot; my house soon grew rich, and then I became feared and honoured among the Cretans.   

Ll. 235-284. Odysseus tells of the Cretan's adventures in Egypt. 

"But when the far-seeing Zeus devised that hateful journey, which loosened the knees of (so) many warriors, they (i.e. the Cretans) kept on urging me and glorious Idomeneus to lead their ships to Ilium; nor was there any means of refusing, for the people's voice bore down hard (on us). There, we, sons of the Achaeans, fought for nine years, and in the tenth, having sacked the city of Priam, we set out for home with our ships, but a god scattered the Achaeans. But for me, wretched (man that I was,) Zeus, the counsellor, contrived evil (things); I stayed (at home) for a month only, delighting in my children and my wedded wife, and my possessions; but then did my spirit urge me to sail to Egypt (i.e. to the River Nile) with my godlike companions, when I had carefully fitted out my ships, and an army was speedily assembled. Then did my trusty companions feast for six days; and I gave (them) many victims, to sacrifice to the gods and in order to prepare a feast for themselves. And on the seventh day we embarked and set sail from broad Crete, with a fair North Wind blowing readily at its height, and as if (we were going) downstream; nor did any of my ships come to harm, but we sat (there) unscathed and free from sickness, and the wind and the helmsmen directed them. 

"Then, on the fifth day, we came to the fair-flowing Nile, and (there) in the River of Egypt I moored my ships with their banks of oars on both sides. Then, in truth, I ordered my trusty comrades to remain there by the ships and defend the ships, and I sent scouts to go in search of watch-towers; but they, giving way to wanton violence and led on by their own vigour, began, almost at once, to  ravage the very beautiful fields of the men of Egypt, and they carried off the women and little children, and slew the (men); and their cry came quickly to the city. And, hearing the shouting, the (people) came forth at the same time as dawn appeared; then, the whole plain was filled with foot-soldiers and chariots, and the flashing of bronze; but Zeus, who delights in thunder, threw my comrades into an abject headlong flight, and no one had the courage to stand his ground against the foe; for threats surrounded (us) on every side. Then, they slew many of us with the sharp bronze, and some they led inland alive to work for them by compulsion (i.e. as slaves). But Zeus himself put this thought into my mind - though I should have died and met my fate there in Egypt; for sorrow was still now (waiting to) receive me -  straightway, I took the well-made helmet from my head, and the shield from my shoulders, and let the spear fall from my hands; then I went towards their king's chariot, and clasped and kissed his knees; and he took pity on me and rescued (me), and he sat me in his chariot and took me, shedding tears, to his home. In truth, a great many (of them) rushed at me with their ashen spears, longing to kill (me) - for they were extremely angry - , but he kept (them) off, and had regard for the wrath of Zeus, (the god) of strangers, who shows particular displeasure at evil deeds.   

Ll. 285-320. Odysseus tells how the Cretan came to Thesprotia. 

"There on that spot I stayed for seven years (n.b. this timescale coincides with the seven years spent by Odysseus himself on Calypso's island of Ogygia), and I gathered much wealth from the men of Egypt; for they all used to give (me things). But, when the approaching eighth year actually arrived, then there came to me a Phoenician man, who knew wily tricks, a petty swindler, who had already done many evil (things) to men; prevailing upon me by his cunning, he took me (with him), until we reached Phoenicia, where lay his house and his possessions. There I stayed with him for a full year. But, when the months and the years were fulfilled and the year came round again and the seasons passed, he put me on board a sea-faring ship bound for Libya, telling me the lie that I should convey a cargo with him, but, when (we got) there, he thought he might sell me and get a very good price. (So,) I followed him forcibly on to the ship, despite foreseeing (the worst). And she was running in the midst (of the sea) above Crete with a fair North Wind blowing strongly; but Zeus had devised their destruction. For, when we had gone past Crete and no other land appeared, but (only) sky and sea, then did the son of Cronos place a black cloud above the hollow ship, and the sea grew dark beneath it. And at the same time Zeus thundered and hurled a bolt of lightning against the ship; and the whole (ship) shook, struck, (as it was,) by Zeus's thunderbolt, and it was filled with (the smell of) sulphur; and all (the members of the crew) fell from the ship. And they were borne on the waves around the black ship like sea-crows; and the god put an end to their homecoming. But as for me, despite my heart being seized with woe, Zeus himself put into my hands the very long mast of the dark-prowed ship, so I might still escape from disaster. Entwined around this, I was borne by the deadly winds. For nine days I was borne (along), but on the tenth black night a huge rolling wave brought me to the coast of the land of the Thesprotians (i.e. a district of north-western Greece, on the coast of Epirus). There, the lord Pheidon, king of the Thesprotians, provided for me without payment; for his dear son came upon (me), overcome, (as I was,) with exposure and exhaustion, and he raised (me) by the hand and led (me) to his home, until he came to his father's palace; then, he clothed me in a cloak and tunic (as) raiment. 

Ll. 321-359. Odysseus goes on to tell of the Cretan's experiences in Thesprotia. 

"(It was) there (that) I learned of Odysseus; for he said he had received (him) and entertained (him) as he was going on his way to his native-land, and he showed me all the goods which Odysseus had gathered, bronze, and gold, and iron that is wrought with much toil. And now would it feed (a man and) then others down to the tenth generation; such great treasure is lying (ready) for him in the halls of that king. But he said that he (i.e. Odysseus) had gone to Dodona (i.e. a town in Thesprotia, which housed the most ancient oracle of Zeus, whose responses were delivered by the rustling of oak-trees in its sacred grove), to hear the will of Zeus from the lofty foliage of the god's oak-tree, as to how he should return, whether openly or in disguise, to the rich land of Ithaca, having now been away for so long. And he swore in my presence, as he poured the libations of wine in his house, that the ship had been launched and the crewmen were ready, who were to convey him to his native-land. But me he sent off first; for a ship of the men of Thesprotia happened to be setting out for Dulichium, rich in corn (i.e. an island off the western coast of Greece, near Ithaca). There, he bade (them) convey me in a friendly fashion to Acastus, its king; but an evil thought brought pleasure to their minds, that I might yet be brought into the misery of total disaster. So, when the sea-faring ship had sailed far from land, they at once contrived in their cunning (to bring about) the day of slavery for me. They stripped me of my garments, cloak and tunic, and they threw another tattered garment and a filthy tunic around me, the (very) rags which you yourself can now see before your eyes; and by evening they reached the tilled lands of far-seen Ithaca; and there they bound me firmly with a well-twisted rope in the well-benched ship, and they themselves disembarked and hastily took their supper on the shore of the sea. But, in my case, the gods themselves readily undid my bonds; and, wrapping the tattered cloak around my head, I slid down the smooth lading plank and brought my breast to the sea, and then I struck out swimming with both hands, and very soon I was out of (the water) and beyond their (reach). Then, I went up (to a place) where there was a thicket of flowering woodland, (and there) I lay low. And they went backwards and forwards, shouting loudly; but, as there seemed to be no benefit to them in searching (for me) any further, so they went back again on board their hollow ship; and the gods themselves hid me easily, and took (me) and led me to the farmstead of a knowledgeable man; for (it is) now still my lot to be alive." 

Ll. 360-400. Eumaeus doubts the truth of what the Cretan has told him about Odysseus. 

And you, Eumaeus the swineherd, said to him in reply: "Ah, my poor friend, you have certainly stirred my heart deeply (by) telling (me) each of those (things) which you have suffered and (the places) where you have wandered. But (you have) not, I think, (spoken) aright when you said things about Odysseus, nor will you persuade me; but why should you lie for no reason when you are in such a situation as this? I myself also well know (with regard to) the return of my master, which was utterly hateful to all of the gods, that they did not let him fall among the Trojans or in the arms of his friends, when he had wound up the long thread of war. In such circumstances, all of the Achaean nations would have made him a tomb, and for his son too he would have won great glory, but now the whirlwinds have snatched him up and carried him off without fame. But I live apart (from men) with my pigs; nor do I go to the city, unless perhaps wise Penelope bids (me) go to it when news comes (to her) from somewhere. Then, on each of these (occasions), men sit around and ask questions, both (those) who are grieving for their lord, who has been away for so long, and (those) who delight in devouring his livelihood without compensation; but to me it is not desirable to ask and inquire, since the time when a man from Aetolia deceived me with his story that he had killed a man, and, after wandering over the wide earth, he came to my house; and I greeted him warmly. And he said that he had seen him (i.e. Odysseus) among the Cretans at the house of Idomeneus, repairing ships which the storms had shattered; and he said that he would come either during the summer or at the time of the fruit-picking, bringing much treasure (with him), along with his godlike comrades. And you too, old man of many sorrows, since a god brought you to me, do not seek to win my favour by telling me any lies, or by trying to charm (me) in any way; for (it is) not for this reason that I shall show you respect and be kind (to you), but through fear of Zeus, the god of strangers, and pity for yourself."        

Then, Odysseus, (that man) of many wiles, spoke to him in reply: "For, in very truth, (there is) an unbelieving heart in your breast, seeing that for this reason I could not win you over, even with an oath, or persuade you. But come now, let us make a verbal agreement; and (may) the gods who hold Olympus (be) witnesses to (us) both. If your master should come back to this house, (then) you shall clothe me in a cloak and tunic (as) raiment, and send me on my way to Dulichium, where it is the desire of my heart to go; but, if he does not come as I say (he will), tell your slaves to hurl (me) down from a great cliff, so that another beggar may avoid cheating (me)."

Ll. 401-445. Eumaeus prepares the fatted hog for their dinner. 

Then, the goodly swineherd addressed him in reply: "(Oh yes), stranger, for on that basis I should (certainly) win both fame and fortune among men both now and hereafter, if I, who brought you to my hut and gave you entertainment, should then slay (you) and take away your dear life; then should I readily pray to Zeus, son of Cronos. But now (it is) time for supper; may my comrades soon be inside, so we can enjoy a tasty meal in the hut."    

So they said such (things) to one another, and the swine and the swineherds came near. Then, they shut up the (sows) in their accustomed places to sleep, and an amazing sound came from the pigs as they were penned. Then, the goodly swineherd called out to his comrades, (saying): "Bring out the best of the boars, so that I may sacrifice (it) to the stranger from afar; and we ourselves shall also profit (from it), yes (we) who have long borne suffering and toil on account of these white-tusked boars, while others devour (the fruits of) our labour without recompense." 

Thus speaking, he split some firewood with his sharp bronze (axe), and they brought in a very fat five-year-old hog. Then, they placed him by the hearth; nor did the swineherd forget the immortals; for he was possessed of a kindly disposition; but he began (the ritual) by throwing (a tuft of) hair from the head of the white-tusked boar into the fire, and he prayed to all the gods that wise Odysseus might return to his own home. And then he raised himself up and struck (the animal) with a piece of oak, which he had left unsplit; and his life left him; and the swineherd placed raw pieces from all his limbs in the rich fat, as the first offerings, and these he cast into the fire, after he had sprinkled (them) with barley meal, and the rest they cut up and stuck on spits, and they roasted (it) carefully, and drew (it) all (off the spits), and cast (it) in heaps on to platters; then did the swineherd get up to carve; for in his heart he understood better (than the others) what (portions) were fair. And he cut it and divided (it) all into seven portions; one (share) he set aside, with a prayer, for the nymphs and for Hermes, Maia's son, and the others he distributed to each (person); and Odysseus he honoured with the long chine (i.e. back-bone) of the white-tusked boar, and he gladdened the heart of his master; and Odysseus, (that man) of many wiles, spoke to him and said: "Would that you may be as dear to father Zeus, Eumaeus, as (you are) to me, in that you honour me with a good (portion), despite me being in such a (plight)."  

To him, then, swineherd Eumaeus, did you say in reply: "Eat up, unhappy (soul) among strangers, and enjoy such (food) as is here; (it is) the god (that) will give one thing and withhold another, whatever he wishes in his heart; for he can do everything."

Ll. 446-493. Odysseus' Cretan tells a story about his time at Troy. 

He spoke, and then he offered the pieces he had set aside (i.e. for the nymphs and Hermes) as a burnt offering to the eternal gods, and, when he had poured a libation of sparkling wine, he placed (a cup) in the hands of Odysseus, sacker of cities; then, he sat down beside his own portion. Then, Mesaulius (i.e. 'Yardman') served them bread, (he) whom the swineherd himself had acquired alone, in the absence of his master, and without the knowledge of his mistress and of old man Laertes; and he bought him from the Taphians (n.b. the exact location of Taphos is unknown, but it must have been a place on, or near to, the coast of the mainland of western Greece) with his own resources. Then, they put out their hands to the good food set in front of (them). But, when they had satisfied their desire for meat and drink, Mesaulius took away their food, and, full of food and meat, they were ready for bed. 

Then, night came on, dark (and) stormy, and Zeus rained all night long, and the West Wind, ever full of rain, blew strongly. Then, Odysseus (i.e. still in the guise of the Cretan stranger) spoke among them, testing the swineherd, (to see) if he would strip off his cloak and give (it to him), or urge another one of his comrades (to do so), since he cared for him so much: "Listen (to me) now, Eumaeus and (you) all the rest of his comrades, as I wish to tell (you) a story, for that distracting wine bids (me do so), (that wine) which enjoins (a man), even though he be very wise, to singing and laughing stupidly, and it is making me (stand up and) dance, and blurt out some words (that were) really better (left) unspoken. But, since I have now opened my mouth in the first place, I shall not hide (anything). Would that I were (still) in the flower of my youth and my strength was firm, as (it was) when we contrived an ambush and led (it) beneath (the walls of) Troy. Odysseus and Atreus' son, Menelaus, led the way, and with them I was third in command; for they themselves had (so) ordered (it). But, when we came to the city and its steep wall, we lay, crouching under our armour, in thick brushwood among the thickets of reeds and the marshes around the town. And night came on, foul and icy-cold, the North Wind having dropped; and snow came down (on us) like a hoar-frost, (and it was) bitterly cold, and ice formed solidly on our shields. Now, everyone else had cloaks and tunics, and slept in peace, covering their shoulders with their shields. But I, when I set out, had, in my folly, left my cloak with my comrades, as I did not think it would be at all cold, and I had come only with my shield and my gleaming waistband. But, when it was the third watch of the night, and the stars had passed their zenith, then I nudged Odysseus, who was nearby, with my elbow, and spoke to (him); and he listened at once (to what I said): '(O) son of Laertes, sprung from Zeus, ever-resourceful Odysseus, in truth, I shall no longer be among the living, but the cold is killing me; for I have no cloak; some god misled me into being lightly clad; and now there is no longer any way of escape (from the frost).' 

"So I spoke, and he then devised this plan in his heart, (as) he was the kind of (man both) to plan and to fight; and, speaking in a low voice, he said these words to me: 'Be silent now, lest another one of the Achaeans should hear you.' 

Ll. 494-533. When Odysseus' Cretan finishes his story, Eumaeus ensures he can go to sleep in comfortable circumstances.  

"Then, he raised his head on his elbow and spoke these words: 'Listen (to me), my friends; a dream from the gods has come to me. The fact is that we have come very far from the ships; so may someone go  and speak to Atreus' son, Agamemnon, shepherd of the host, (to see) if he might arrange for reinforcements to come to us from the ships.'

"So he spoke, and Thoas, son of Andraemon, immediately sprang up, and threw off his purple cloak, and made his way to the ships; then I gladly lay in his garment, and golden-throned Dawn appeared. Would that I were now as young as I was then, and my strength was (as) firm; (then) would one of the swineherds in the farmstead give (me) a cloak, both from kindness and from respect for a brave mortal; but now they despise me, as I have foul raiment around my body."

Then, swineherd Eumaeus, did you speak to him in reply: "O old man, let me tell you that the story, which you have recited, (is) an excellent (one), nor have you said a word (that is) at all out of place (or) superfluous; therefore, you shall want neither clothing, nor anything else which a sorely tried suppliant may expect at the time when he meets (it); but in the morning you will knock about in those tattered garments of yours. For here (there are) not many cloaks or changeable tunics to put on, and (there is) only one for each man. But, when the dear son of Odysseus (i.e. Telemachus) shall come, he himself will give you a cloak and tunic (as) raiment, and will send you wherever your heart and spirit bid (you go). 

So saying, he (i.e. Eumaeus) leapt up, and then placed a bed for him near the fire, and he flung upon (it) skins of sheep and goats. There Odysseus lay down; and he threw over him a cloak, great and thick, which he kept beside him (as) a change of clothing, to wear whenever some terrible cold spell should arise. 

So there did Odysseus sleep, and the young men slept beside him; but a bed at that spot, (and) to go to sleep away from his boars, did not please the swineherd, but he made arrangements to go outside; and Odysseus was glad that he was so concerned for his property, while he was so far away. Firstly, he (i.e. Eumaeus) slung his sharp sword over his sturdy shoulders, then he put a cloak about (him) to keep out the wind, very thick (it was), and he took up the fleece of a large well-fed goat, and seized hold of a sharp javelin to ward off dogs and men. Then, he went on his way to lie down (at a place) where the white-tusked boars slept beneath a hollow rock under shelter from the North Wind.