SENECA: DE CLEMENTIA ("ON MERCY")

Introduction:

Lucius Annaeus Seneca (c. 4 B.C. - 65 A.D.), sometimes known as Seneca the Younger, was born in Corduba in Spain, but came to Rome as a very young child and resided there with his father, Seneca the Elder (54 B.C. - 39 A.D.), a well-known writer and orator. In 41 A.D. he was exiled to Corsica by the Emperor Claudius, because of an alleged affair he had with Claudius' niece, Julia Livilla, but in 49 he was allowed to return to Rome at the instigation of Claudius' new wife, Agrippina, Julia Livilla's sister, and he became tutor to her son Nero, who was Claudius' designated successor. When Claudius died in very suspicious circumstances in 54, Nero duly became emperor at the very young age of sixteen, and Seneca, together with his close friend and ally, the Praetorian Prefect, Sextus Afranius Burrus, became his main political adviser. For the first five years of Nero's reign, the advice of these two men helped to  ensure a period of relatively stable and tranquil government, but after Nero's murder of his mother Agrippina in 59, which Seneca had accepted with some considerable reluctance and was afterwards forced to justify, his influence began to wane, particularly after the death of Burrus in 62. Seneca then sought to retire from court, but Nero rejected such requests in 62 and 64. However, in 65 Seneca was caught up in the wake of the failed conspiracy of Piso, and an increasingly paranoid Nero ordered him to commit suicide. After a number of unsuccessful attempts to do so, he succeeded in suffocating himself in a hot bath. Also executed in the aftermath of this conspiracy was Seneca's nephew, the poet Lucan, author of "Pharsalia". 

Seneca was a versatile writer of Stoic philosophical works, letters and tragic plays. "De Clementia" ("On Mercy"), the work which Sabidius has translated below, was one of twelve moral essays or dialogues that he wrote. It was written in 55-56, and addressed to the young emperor Nero himself, in order to demonstrate the importance of clemency as a necessary virtue in an emperor. But it was actually written shortly after Nero's murder of his own half-brother Britannicus in 55, and another motive for its writing may have been to reassure the Roman public that this murder was the end, not the beginning, of bloodshed; and, although it does flatter the youthful Nero, and his apparently merciful nature, excessively, its main intention is to set out the correct Stoic path of virtue for a ruler. Nevertheless, a very considerable irony was to follow the compilation of this work: Nero was eventually to become a monstrous tyrant, who murdered at whim and without mercy whomever he liked, for instance the Christians, whom he allegedly sought to scapegoat for the disastrous Great Fire of Rome in 64, and his victims also included his mother, two wives and all living members of the Julio-Claudian family, so that, when he committed suicide in 68, there was no one left to succeed him. Poor Seneca! Can any advice, however well-intentioned, ever have been so flagrantly rejected by its recipient?   

After his death, Seneca was to enjoy a great reputation as a writer and dramatist throughout the remaining classical period, the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance. However, despite the renown of his well-described Stoic beliefs, as set out in his moral essays and in his famous "Epistulae morales ad Lucilium", a collection of 124 letters written in 64, the last year of his life, his reputation as a philosopher has always been vitiated, both during his lifetime as well as subsequently, by the enormous wealth which he acquired during his time with Nero, much of it based on making loans at very high rates of interest. The apparent hypocrisy which this wealth creation involved inevitably called into question the sincerity of his Stoic convictions, and he was subject to criticism by the historians Tacitus and Cassius Dio. 

As a piece of work to translate, Sabidius has found "De Clementia" reasonably straightforward. The arguments are usually set out in very accessible vocabulary, although sometimes, when abstract moral or mental qualities are involved, Seneca's precise meaning can become a little obscure. It is mostly highly readable, as well as persuasive, although at times the points are made in unnecessarily exaggerated language, and perhaps the content is somewhat repetitive. However, as is the case with so many of Seneca's essays and letters, this work would have been a gold-mine for any Latin writer looking for a suitable quotation on the subject in question.  

The text for this translation has come from the edition of "L. Annaeus Seneca: volume 1", edited by John W. Basore (Heineman), 1928, and available on the Perseus' website. Another text of "De Clementia" is also available on line: see "Original texts of Seneca's works at 'The Latin Library.' "

DE CLEMENTIA ("ON MERCY"):

BOOK I.

Chapter 1. (1) I have arranged, Nero Caesar, to write on the subject of mercy, in order that I may, in some way, perform the function of a mirror, and (so) show you to yourself as you are about to attain the greatest pleasure of (them) all. For, although the real enjoyment of good deeds lies in the doing (of them), and there is no fitting reward for virtues beyond (the virtues) themselves, (still) it is a pleasure to visit and examine a good conscience, (and) then to cast one's eyes upon the vast mass (of mankind), quarrelsome, factious, (and) headstrong (as they are), (and) ready to exult alike on their own ruin and (that of) others, if they should break the yoke (of your government), and thus to commune with oneself: (2) "Have I, of all mortals, been approved and chosen to act on the earth in place of the gods? (I am) the arbiter of life and death for its peoples; what lot and position (in life) each man has is placed in my hands; from my lips fortune proclaims what (gift) should be bestowed on each mortal; from my utterances people and cities find reasons for rejoicing; no place prospers at all without my good-will and favour; all these thousands of swords, which my peace has restrained, would be drawn at my nod; it is my right to declare which tribes shall be utterly exterminated, which shall be transported (elsewhere), which shall be given their liberty and which shall be deprived (of it), which kings shall become slaves and the heads of which should be crowned, which cities shall be destroyed and which (ones) shall rise. (3) Amid this very great abundance of powers, neither anger, nor youthful impulse, nor the rashness and obstinacy of men, which has often exhausted the patience of even the most tranquil of minds, has impelled me to (hand out) unjust punishments, nor (has) that dread pride in power which shows itself by (inspiring) terror, but which is so common among great sovereigns. The sword is hidden, nay it is sheathed, in my presence; I (am) sparing, to the greatest degree, of the blood of even the lowest (of my subjects); no one with the name of a man, to whom (all) other (things) are lacking, is not in favour with me. (4) Sternness I keep hidden, but mercy (I have) at hand; I keep watch on myself in such a way as though I am about to render an account to those laws, which I have brought out of neglect and darkness into the light (of day). I have been moved (to pity) by  the fresh youth (of one), (and) by the extreme (old age) of another; one (man) I have condoned due to his high rank, (and) another due to his lowly (estate); whenever I could find no excuse for mercy, I have spared myself. Today, I am ready to give (an account) of the human race to the immortal gods, if they should require such a reckoning from me."  

(5) This, Caesar, you can boldly proclaim, that all these (things) which have come into your trust and protection are kept safe, (and) that they have suffered no loss through you, either through violence or in secret. You have coveted a reputation (that is) most rare, and which has been acquired by no other emperor until now, (that of) innocence (of any wrong-doing). That extraordinary goodness of yours does not damage your work, nor does it meet with ungrateful or spiteful evaluators. Gratitude is given to you in return; no one man was ever so dear to another man as you are to the people of Rome, (you being) its great and lasting blessing. (6) But you have imposed a huge burden upon yourself; no one now talks of the deified Augustus or the early years of Tiberius Caesar, or is looking for a model which he would wish you to copy, other than yourself; your principate is thought to (provide) our (standard) taste. This would have been difficult, if that goodness had not been natural to you, but (merely) adopted for a time. For no one can wear a mask for long, and false (impressions) quickly lapse back into one's own character; whatever truth underlies such (things), grows, so to speak, from solid ground, (and the passage of) time itself turns (it) into something bigger and better. 

(7) The Roman people faced a great hazard, when it was (still) uncertain in what (direction) that noble nature of yours would take itself; now the prayers of the community are assured; for there is no danger that forgetfulness of yourself should take you by surprise. Too much prosperity makes (men) greedy, nor are our desires ever so moderate that they cease at the point when there has been success; (this) creates stepping(-stones) from great to (even) greater (successes), and, once they have gained unexpected (things), they embrace the most perverse of hopes; yet now, this confession is extorted from all your citizens, both that they are happy, and this as well, that nothing can be added to their blessings, except that they should be continuous. (8) Many (circumstances) force them to (make) this admission, and nothing less hasty than this is (likely to be said) among men: (there is) a security deep (and) abounding, (and) justice (has been) placed above all wrong; the most welcome form of government is to be seen by the eyes (of men), from which nothing is lacking to (provide) the highest degree of liberty, except the power of (self-)destruction. (9) Above all, however, admiration of your (quality of) mercy, extends from the highest to the lowest (of your subjects); for each man experiences or expects a larger or smaller (measure) of other blessings in proportion to his luck, (but) from your mercy they all expect the same; nor is there any man whose own innocence is so greatly satisfying, that he does not rejoice that your mercy remains in view, ready (to accommodate) human errors.   

Chapter 2. (1) Yet I know that there are some who think that all the worst (men) are sustained by mercy, since it is superfluous, unless (it comes) after some crime (has occurred), and (since) alone of all the virtues it has no function among the innocent. But, first of all, just as (there is) a use for medicine among the sick, (yet) it is also held in honour among the healthy, so, (in the case of) mercy, though (it is those who are) worthy of punishment (who) invoke (it), the innocent also cherish (it). Then, this (virtue) has a place even in the person of the guiltless, because sometimes misfortune takes the place of guilt; and mercy not only succours innocence, but often virtue, since indeed in the circumstance of the times certain (actions) which can be praised happen to incur punishment. Add (to that) that there is a large part of mankind that could be returned to innocence if (only) there were a remission of punishment. (2) Nevertheless, to pardon ought not (to become too) common; for when the distinction between the bad and the good is removed, disorder follows and (there is) an eruption of the vices; therefore a moderate approach should be applied, which is capable of distinguishing curable characters from hopeless (ones). Neither should we have indiscriminate and general mercy, nor (should it be) exclusive; for (it is) as cruel to pardon everyone as to pardon nobody. We ought to maintain a middle course; but, since the perfect mean is difficult (to achieve), whatever the more reasonable (course) should be, let the emphasis be placed on the side of humanity.  

Chapter 3. (1) But these (matters) will be better discussed in their own place. I shall now divide this whole subject into three parts. The first will be about emancipation; the second will show the nature and disposition of mercy: for, since there are certain vices which seek to resemble virtues, they cannot be separated unless you stamp marks upon (them) by which they can be distinguished; in the third place, we shall inquire how the mind may be induced to (practise) this virtue, how it may strengthen it and by habit make (it) its own.  

(2) It is necessary to agree that none other of all the virtues befits a man more (than) mercy, since none is more humane, not only among us who wish that man should appear (as) a social creature begotten for the common good, but also among those who give man over to pleasure, and whose words and deeds all tend towards their own advantage; for, if (a man) seeks quiet and repose, he has found this virtue (suited) to his own nature, which loves peace and stays the hand. (3) Yet, of all (men), mercy becomes no one more than a king or prince. For it is the case that great strength has grace and fame (only) if it has the power to do good; for it is the power of a pestilence that has the strength to (do) harm. That (man's) greatness is only secure and well-established, whom everyone knows is as much on their (side) as (he is) their superior; and his watchful care of each one of them, and of all of them, they experience on a daily basis, and upon his approach they do not flee, as if some monster or deadly beast had sprung forward from its lair, but they flock to (him) eagerly as if towards a bright and beneficent star. In his (defence, they are) quite prepared to throw themselves before the swords of assassins, and to offer their bodies on his behalf, if his path to safety is strewn with human carnage, (and) they protect his sleep by nightly vigils, and, (while) offering up their own bodies, they surround and defend (him), and expose themselves to the dangers that he faces. 

(4) It is not without (good) reason that (there is) this accord of peoples and cities in thus protecting and loving their kings and of sacrificing themselves and their (property), whenever the safety of their ruler should require (it); nor is it self-depreciation or madness that so many thousands are put to the sword for the sake of one person, and (when), by so many deaths, they save the life of one (man), (who is) sometimes old and feeble.   

(5) Just as the whole body is a servant of the mind, and, though the former is so much larger and more showy, (and) the latter remains hidden (and) insubstantial, and unaware of where its habitation lies, yet the hands, the feet, (and) the eyes do its business, the outer skin protects it, at its bidding we lie (still) or run restlessly to  and fro; when it commands, if it is an avaricious master, we scour the sea for the sake of gain; if (it is) ambitious, we put our hands into the flames at once (i.e. like Mucius Scaevola) or willingly jump into the ground (i.e. like Curtius); so the vast throng surrounding (the life) of one man is directed by his spirit, is guided by his intellect, and would crush and shatter itself through its own strength, if it were not sustained by his counsel. 

Chapter 4. (1) So (men) love their own safety, when they lead ten legions at a time into battle on behalf of one man, when they rush to the forefront and expose their breasts to wounds, lest the standards of their emperor should be turned back. For he is the bond through which the republic holds together, he (is) the breath of life, which all those so many thousands draw, (and) they would be) nothing but a burden to themselves and the prey (of others), if that (great) mind of empire should be withdrawn. 

                         If their king is safe, (they (i.e. bees) are) all of one mind;                                                                             When he is lost, they break their troth.  

(2) Such a disaster would be the end of the Roman peace, (and) it would drive the fortune of so great a people into ruin; this people shall be free from that danger so long as it knows (how) to endure the reins, but, if ever it should break them, or if they are shattered by some accident, (then) this unity and this fabric of the mightiest empire will dissolve into many parts, and the end of this city's dominance will occur at the same time as (the end) of her obedience will have happened. (3) Therefore, it is not surprising that princes and kings, and the guardians of the constitution, whatever different name they have, should be beloved, even beyond the private (circle) of their relatives; for, if, to right-thinking men, (the interests) of the state are preferable to their own, (then) it follows that he too is dearer on whom the state itself converges. For, in the past, Caesar (i.e. Julius Caesar) so clothed himself with (the powers) of the state, that neither could be separated without the downfall of both; for he had the need for power, and it (had the need) for a head. 

Chapter 5. (1) My discourse appears to have departed rather far from its purpose, but, by Hercules, it is pressing on the very matter. But if, as it is so far established, you are the soul of your state, (and) it (is) your body, you (will) see, I think, how necessary mercy is; for you spare yourself, when you spare another. So, even unruly citizens should be spared just like weak limbs, and, if ever there is a need for blood-letting, the hand must be controlled, lest it cuts deeper than may be necessary.  (2) So, as I was saying, mercy is indeed for all men in accordance with nature, but is especially befitting in rulers, inasmuch as in their case it has more which it could save, and inasmuch as it appears amid a greater (scale of) opportunities. For the cruelty of an individual can do little harm! The ferocity of princes is war. (3) Now, although in the case of the virtues there is a harmony between them, and none of them is better or nobler than another, yet a certain (virtue) is more suited to some people. Great-heartedness becomes any human-being, even him, below whom there is nothing at all; for what (can be) greater or braver than to beat back ill-fortune? Yet, this great-heartedness has a freer place amid (the circumstances of) good fortune, and is seen to better (effect) on the judges' bench than on the floor (of the court).  

(4) Into whatever house she will have entered, mercy will render it happy and peaceful, but in the palace (she is) the more wonderful, in that (she is) rarer. For what is (more) remarkable than that he, whose anger nothing can withstand, with whose sentence, too heavy (though it be), those who are to perish are in agreement, whom no one will venture to gainsay, no, not (even) if he is violently incensed, nor will he intercede with prayer, should lay his hand upon himself and apply his power in a better and a calmer (manner), as he reflects in this (way): "Anyone can kill contrary to the law, (but) no one but I can save"? (5) A great mind befits a lofty position (in life), which, unless it has raised itself up to and (even) above  that (level), it too drags that (position) down to the ground. Yet, it is the mark of a lofty mind to be calm and tranquil, and to look down upon wrongs and insults from a lofty height. It is (the characteristic) of a woman to rage in anger, and doubtless of wild beasts, but yet (it is) not (the characteristic) of the most noble (of these) to bite into and worry their prostrate (victims). Elephants and lions pass by (those) which they have struck down; persistence is (the mark) of the ignoble beast. (6) Cruel and inexorable anger does not befit a king, for he does not rise much above the (victim of his anger), with whom he puts himself on an equal footing by getting angry; but, if he grants life, if he gives position (to those) who have endangered, and deserve to lose, (them), he does what none but a man of mighty power may (do); for life may be taken even from (someone) above (us) in station, (but) it can never be granted, save to one who is inferior (to us). (7) To save life is the mark of an exalted status, which ought never to be more respected than when it happens to have the same power as the gods, by whose beneficence we, both good and bad, are brought forward into the light. Therefore, let a prince, appropriating to himself the spirit of the gods, look with pleasure upon some of his citizens because they are useful and good, and leave the others to make up the roll; let him rejoice at the existence of the former, and endure (that of) the latter.     

Chapter 6. (1) In this city, in which the crowd that streams unceasingly through its widest roads is broken up, whenever anything gets in its way, because its course, like (that) of a rapid torrent, is checked, in which the stalls of three theatres are required at the same time, (and) in which is consumed whatever is cultivated in every land, consider how great would be the desolation and waste, if nothing were left (in it), but what a strict judge would release. (2) How few of the magistrates are there, who should not be condemned under the very law, by which they operate? How few accusers are free from blame? And I feel sure that no one is more reluctant to grant a pardon than (he) who has constantly had reason to seek it. (3) We have all sinned, some with regard to serious (matters), others in relation to trivial (things), some from a deliberate decision, others by chance impulse or (because they were) led astray by the wickedness of others; some (of us) have not stood strongly enough by our good resolutions, and have lost our innocence, (though) unwillingly and (while seeking) to retain (them); not only have we done wrong, but we shall continue to do wrong right up to the very end of our lives. (4) Even if anyone has now so thoroughly cleansed his mind, that nothing can confound or betray him any more, yet he has (only) reached this (state of) innocence by sinning.

Chapter 7. (1) Since I have made mention of the gods, I shall do well to establish this (as) the standard for a prince, to which he should (seek to) model himself, so that he should wish himself to be to his citizens as (he would wish) the gods (to be) to himself. Is it expedient, then, to have deities (that are) merciless towards our sins and errors, is it expedient (to have them) as extreme enemies right up to (the point of) our destruction? And what king will be safe, whose soothsayers do not gather up the limbs (of their victims)? (2) But if the gods (are) easily appeased and just, (and) do not instantly pursue with thunderbolts the shortcomings of the mighty, how much more just is it for a man, who has been put in authority over men, to exercise that power in a spirit of mildness, and to consider whether the condition of the world is more pleasing and more lovely to the eye, (when) the day (is) fine and clear, or when everything is shaken by frequent thunder-claps, and (when) lightning flashes on this side and that! And yet the appearance of a peaceful and constitutional sovereignty is no different from that of a clear and shining sky. (3) A reign (that is) cruel is troubled and overcast with gloom, (and,) among (those) who tremble and are terrified at a sudden noise, not even he who throws everything into disorder (remains) unshaken. In the case of private individuals, (who are) stubbornly (seeking) to avenge themselves, one is more easily pardoned; for they may have been injured, and their resentment may spring from this injustice; besides they are afraid (to be) despised, and not to make requital for their injuries seems (like) weakness, not clemency; but he, for whom vengeance is straightforward, if he overlooks it, gets certain praise for his restraint. (4) For (those) placed in a lowly station there is more freedom to use force, to go to law, to rush into a brawl, and to indulge their rage; blows are of little (matter) between equals; (but) for a king, even loud cries and intemperate language are not in accord with his majesty.

Chapter 8. (1) You think (it is) a serious (matter) for kings to be deprived of the right of (free) speech, which (even) the lowliest (of men) possesses. "That," you say, "is servitude, not sovereignty." What? Do you not realise that the (sovereignty) is ours, (and) the servitude yours? (Very) different is the position of those who hide in a crowd which they do not leave, whose very virtues struggle for a long time to show themselves, and (whose) vices are held in obscurity; (but) rumour intercepts your deeds and words, and therefore no one should take more care of what reputation they have than (those) who, whatever they may deserve, are sure to have a great (one). (2) How many (things there are which) you may not (do), (but) which we, thanks to you, can (do)! I can walk alone without fear in any part of the city I choose, although no companion accompanies (me), there is no one at my house, (and) no sword at my side; you must live armed in the peace you (maintain). You cannot escape from your lot; it besets you, and, whenever you come down (from the heights), it pursues (you) with great ceremony. (3) It is the condition of supreme greatness, that it cannot become less (great); but this is a requirement which you share with the gods. For heaven holds them fast too, and it is no more possible for them to come down than (it is) safe for you (to do so); you are fastened to your (lofty) pinnacle. (4) Few (people) notice our movements, we may come out and retire, and change our dress without the knowledge of the public; (but) you are no more able to hide (yourself) than the sun. A great light surrounds you; the eyes of everyone are turned towards it. Do you think you are going out? (Nay,) you are rising. (5) You cannot speak without (all) the nations that are everywhere (throughout the world) overhearing your voice; you cannot get angry without everything starting to tremble, because (you can) strike no one without shaking whatever would be around (him). Just as thunderbolts fall, (while only) endangering a few, but terrifying everyone, so the punishments (inflicted) by the great potentates terrify more widely than they injure, (and) not without (good) reason; for, with regard to the one who can do everything, (men) do not think so much of what he has done, but of what he may do. (6) Now add (to this) that private men, because they have shown endurance with regard to the wrongs (that they have already) received, (are) more exposed to receiving (others); (yet) the safety of kings is more surely (founded) on mildness, because repeated punishment, (while) it crushes the hatred of a few, provokes (the hatred) of all. (7) The inclination to vent one's rage before (others) should be less strong than what has provoked it; otherwise, just as trees (that have been) trimmed sprout forth again with a multitude of branches, and many kinds of plants are cut back, so that they may grow more densely, so, by their removal, the cruelty of a king increases the number of his enemies; for the parents and children of those who have been killed, and their relatives and friends as well, take the place of every single one (of them). 

Chapter 9. (1) By an example (drawn) from your family, I wish to remind you how true this is. The deified Augustus was a mild prince, if one should begin to judge him from the (time) of his principate; but he wielded his sword, when he shared the government of the republic (with others). When he was of the age that you are now, having passed his eighteenth year, he had already buried daggers in the bosom of his friends, he had already stealthily aimed (a blow) at the side of the consul Mark Antony, (and) he had already been a partner in the proscription. (2) But, when he had passed his fortieth year, and was staying in Gaul, the information was brought to him that Lucius Cinna (n.b. his actual name was Gnaeus Cornelius Luci filius Cinna Magnus), a man of dull intellect, was concocting a plot against him; he was told both where and when, and how he meant to attack (him); one of his accomplices gave away (the information). (3) He planned to protect himself from him, and ordered that a meeting of his friends should be called. He spent a restless night, when he reflected that a young man of noble birth, harmless if this (one act were) disregarded, (and who was) the grandson of Gnaeus Pompey, must be condemned; he, to whom Mark Antony had dictated the edict of proscription over dinner, could not now (bear) to kill one man. (4) Groaning repeatedly, he let out voices of a variable (nature) and (which) were in conflict one with another: "What then? Shall I allow my assassin to walk about untroubled while I am racked with fear? So, shall he not pay the penalty who has plotted not (just) to slay but (actually) to immolate, at a time when peace has been secured on land and sea, that life (which has been) sought in vain amid so many civil wars (and has remained) unharmed during so many naval and infantry battles?" - for he had resolved to attack him while he was sacrificing. (5) (Then) again, (after a period of) silence (had) intervened, he began to express in a much louder voice indignation at himself (rather) than at Cinna: "Why do you live, if it is to the advantage of so many that you should die? What end will there be to these executions? What (end) to this bloodshed? I am a figure exposed to young men of noble birth, upon which they can sharpen the edges of their swords; my life is not worth having, if so many (lives) must be lost, so that I do not die." (6) At last his wife Livia interrupted him and said: "Will you take a woman's advice? Do what physicians usually (do), who, when their usual remedies do not work, try the opposite (ones). So far you have achieved nothing by severity; Lepidus (i.e. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, eldest son of the triumvir, executed in 30 B.C. after a conspiracy) followed Salvidienus, (i.e. Quintus Salvidienus Rufus, betrayed by Mark Antony and executed for treachery in 40 B.C.), Murena (i.e. Aulus Terentius Varro Murena, consul 23 B.C. and adoptive brother of Maecenas' wife Terentia, executed in 22 B.C. without trial after apparent involvement in the conspiracy led by Caepio) Lepidus, Caepio (i.e. the writer Fannius Caepio, executed in 22 B.C. after hatching a conspiracy against Augustus) Murena, (and) Egnatius (i.e. Egnatius Rufus, an abortive candidate for the consulship, he was executed in 19 B.C.; his popularity with the mob arose from his founding a private fire brigade when he had been aedile some years earlier) Caepio, to say nothing of the others, of whose daring one is greatly ashamed. Try now how mercy will work for you; pardon Lucius Cinna. He has been caught; he cannot now harm you, (but) he can do your reputation much good." (7) Glad that he had found (someone) to support his (point of view), he thanked his wife, then immediately told the friends, whom he had asked to (give him) advice, that they were no longer needed, and summoned Cinna only to (join) him, and, when he had sent everyone else from the room, (and) had ordered a second chair to be put down for Cinna, he said: "The first (thing) I ask of you (is) this, that you do not interrupt me while I am speaking, and that you do not cry out in the middle of my address; time will be given to you to speak freely (in reply). (8)  Although I found you, Cinna, in my enemy's camp, not only made but born (as) my (deadly) foe, I saved (your life) and allowed you (to keep) the whole of your father's estate. Today, you are so fortunate and so rich that your conquerors are envious (of you), whom they have conquered. When you were a candidate for the priesthood, I gave (it to you), by-passing several (others), whose parents served with me (in the wars); (but now,) although I have deserved so well of you, you have determined to kill me." (9) When, at these words, he exclaimed that such madness was totally absent from his (mind), he said: "You do not keep your promise, Cinna; it was agreed (between us) that you would not interrupt (me). I repeat, you are preparing to kill me"; (to this) he added (the name of) the place, (the names of) his accomplices, the date, the plan of the ambush, and (the one) to whom the dagger had been entrusted. (10) And, when he saw that (his eyes were) fixed (upon the ground), (and that he was) silent, not on account of their compact, but on account of his conscience, he said: "With what intention are you doing this? (Is it) so that you yourself may be emperor? By Hercules, things must be in a bad way with regard to the Roman people, if nothing but me prevents you from ruling (over them). You cannot even defend your own house; (just) recently you have been defeated in a private lawsuit by the influence of a freedman; so you can find no easier task than to rally (your friends) against Caesar. Now tell me, if I alone am blocking your hopes, will Paullus (i.e. this is probably Paullus Aemilius Lepidus, consul 34 B.C.) and Fabius Maximus (i.e. Paullus Fabius Maximus, consul 11 B.C.), and the Cossi (i.e. one of whom was Cossus Cornelius Lentulus, consul 1 B.C.), and the Servilii (i.e. one of whom was Servilius Vatia, the son of Publius Servilus Vatia Isauricus, consul 48 and 41) and all that great band of noblemen, who bear no empty names but those which add distinction to the portraits of their ancestors, (will they) endure (your rule)?"  

(11) So that I do not occupy a great part of my book by repeating the whole of his address - for it is agreed that he spoke for more than two hours, (during which) he prolonged the punishment, which was the only (one) he intended to inflict - (at last) he said: "Cinna, I grant you your life for the second time; the first time (you were) an enemy, now (you are) a plotter and a parricide. From this day forth, let there be the beginning of a friendship between us; let us contend (to see which one of us is acting) in better faith, whether it is I in granting you your life, or you in owing (it to me)." (12) Later (i.e. in 5 A.D.), he conferred the consulship (upon him) of his own accord, (though) he complained that he had not offered himself as a candidate. He regarded (him as) his most loyal and trustworthy (adherent), and he became his sole heir. No further plots were (ever) made against (him) by anyone.  

Chapter 10. (1) Your great-great-grandfather (i.e. Augustus) pardoned the vanquished; for, if he had not pardoned (them), over whom would he have ruled? He recruited Sallustius (i.e. Gaius Sallustius Crispus, the grand-nephew of the historian), and the Cocceii (i.e. Gaius Cocceius Balbus, consul suffectus 39 B.C. and Marcus Cocceius Nerva, consul suffectus 36 B.C.), and the Dellii (i.e. one of whom was the general Quintus Dellius, who later became a historian), and the whole retinue of his inner circle from the camp of his opponents; now he owed a Domitius (i.e. Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, consul 32 B.C. and the grandfather of the Emperor Nero), a Messala (i.e. Marcus Valerius Messala Corvinus, consul 31 B.C.), an Asinius (i.e. Gaius Asinius Pollio, consul 40 B.C. and a famous letter writer) a Cicero (i.e Marcus Tullius Cicero, consul suffectus 30 B.C. and son of the famous writer and politician), and whatever was the flower of the state to his clemency. How long was Lepidus (i.e. the triumvir Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, consul 46 and 42 B.C.) himself allowed to die! For many years he suffered (him) to retain the ornaments of a ruler, and he did not permit the office of chief priest to be transferred to himself until after his death (n.b. this occurred in 12 B.C.); for he preferred it to be called an honour (rather) than a spoil. (2) This mercifulness (of his) brought him safety and security; it (also) made (him) popular and beloved, (and,) although he had placed his hand on the necks of the Roman people, he had not yet humbled (them); and today this gives him a reputation which is scarcely available to rulers (while they are) living. (3) We acknowledge that Augustus was a good emperor, (and) well worthy of his father's name (i.e. that of Caesar), for no other reason than because he avenged without cruelty even the personal insults which are usually more painful to princes than injuries, because he smiled at the abusive comments (directed) at him, (and,) because he was so far from putting to death all those whom he had convicted of adultery with his daughter that, when they had been banished, he gave (them) passports, by means of which they were (able to travel) more safely. (4) When you know that there are many who will be angry on your behalf, and will (seek to) gain your favour by (taking) the blood of another, it is (indeed) to pardon (when) you not only grant (them) their safety, but you (also) provide (it as well).   

Chapter 11. (1) Such was Augustus (when he was) an old man, or when he was already on the verge of old age; (but) in his youth he was hot-headed, he burned with rage, (and) he did many (things) on which he looked back with reluctance. No one will venture to compare the mildness of the deified Augustus with yours, even if it should bring his more than ripe old age into competition with your youthful years; yes, he was gentle and merciful, but only after the sea at Actium had been stained with Roman blood, (i.e. in 31 B.C.) and only after both his own and his enemy's fleet had been wrecked of Sicily (i.e. in 36 B.C.), and only after the holocaust of Perusia (i.e. in 41-40 B.C.) and the proscriptions (i.e. authorised by the Second Triumvirate in 43 B.C.). (2) But actually I do not call weariness of cruelty mercy; true mercy, Caesar, is something which you display, which has not arisen from regretting your cruelty, but which has never shed the blood of your citizens; in (your position of) unlimited power this is the truest (form of) mental self-control and all-embracing love of the human race, nor (is it) corrupted by any (sense of) greed, or rashness of the intellect, or by the examples of any former princes into testing by experiment what one may (do) to one's fellow-citizens, but (rather) to blunt the edge of one's power. (3) Caesar, you have given (us) a state unstained with blood, and this too, as you, with your great heart, have boasted that you have never shed a single drop of human blood in the whole (wide) world, (and) this is the more significant and more remarkable because the sword has never been entrusted to anyone at an earlier (age). 

(4) So mercy makes (princes) not only more honest but safer, and is the ornament of rulers and, at the same time, its surest (means of) safety. For what is the reason why kings have gown old and have bequeathed their thrones to their children and grandchildren, (while) the power of tyrants is (considered to be) deadly and short(-lived)? What is the difference between a tyrant and a king - for the outward appearance of their circumstances and their power is equal - except that tyrants are cruel to (indulge) their pleasure, (whereas) kings (are cruel) only for a reason and through necessity?  

Chapter 12. (1) "What then? (do you say). "Are not kings also used to putting (men) to death?" But (only) whenever the good of the state persuades (them) that it should be done; (whereas) cruelty is pleasurable to tyrants. But a tyrant differs from a king in deeds, not in name; for while the elder Dionysius (i.e. c. 432-367 B.C., tyrant of Syracuse) may justly and deservedly be preferred to many kings, what keeps Lucius Sulla (i.e. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, consul 88 and 80, dictator 82-79) from being called a tyrant, (for only) a death of foes brought an end to his killing? (2) Although he abdicated from his dictatorship and returned to (wearing) the clothes (of a private citizen), yet what tyrant ever drank human blood so greedily as he, who ordered seven thousand Roman citizens to be butchered, and (who,) as he sat nearby in the temple of Bellona, and heard the cries of so many thousands groaning beneath the sword, said to the terror-stricken senate, "Let us pay attention to our (business), Conscript Fathers; a very few mutinous (men) are being put to death on my orders"? (3) By (saying) this, he did not lie; to Sulla they seemed a few. But (we shall say more) about Sulla presently, when we shall ask how we should show anger to our enemies, particularly if our fellow-citizens have been severed from the same community (as ourselves) and have gone over to the name of our enemies; meanwhile, as I was saying, (it is) mercy that makes the distinction between a king and a tyrant as great (as) it is, though both are no less fortified with arms; but the one has arms, which he uses to safeguard peace, (while) the other (uses them) to suppress great hatred by great terror, and yet the very hands, to which he has entrusted himself, he cannot view without concern. (4) He is forced by conflicting (passions) into conflicting (courses); for, since he is hated because he is feared, he wishes to be feared because he is hated, and (as he is) unaware of how great a frenzy can arise when hatred has grown beyond limit, he employs that odious verse which has consigned (so) many to their fall: Let them hate (me), if only they fear (me too). 

For fear in moderation contains (men's) passions, but (a fear that is) constant and sharp, and brings desperation, arouses the inactive to boldness, and urges (them) to try everything. (5) In the same way, a string of feathers may keep wild beasts confined; but let a horseman fall upon the same (creatures) from behind with javelins, they will try to escape through the very same (things) which they had shunned, and they will trample their fear under foot. The very boldest courage is (that) which utter desperation creates. Fear should leave some (sense of) security, and hold out much more hope than dangers; for otherwise, when peaceful (men) have fears that are equal (to those of the active), then will a man delight to run into perils and to end his life as if (it were) another's.      

Chapter 13. (1) A peaceable and tranquil king (finds) that his guards are trustworthy, as he employs them for public safety, and the soldier - for he sees that he is giving his service for the security of the state - (is) proud (and) willing to undergo every hardship, as the guardian of the father (of his country); but (even) his own retinue are bound to dislike the (tyrant who is) harsh and bloodthirsty. (2) No one can keep servants (who have) good will and loyalty, when he uses (them) for (the purpose of) torture, like the rack and the blades of a razor, in readiness for death, (and) to whom he flings men as if they were wild beasts; like all defendants at the bar, (no man is) more wretched and more anxious than (the man) who fears (both) men and gods (as) witnesses and avengers of his crimes, (but) has reached the point where he cannot change his conduct. For, among other (things), cruelty has the dreadful (outcome) that a man must continue down the same path, and that he cannot retrace his steps and open up (a way) to better (things), for crimes must be protected by (further) crimes. But who can be more unhappy than he who is actually compelled to be wicked? (3) O wretched man, greatly to be pitied, at least by himself! For it would be a sin to pity him who has used his power for murder and plunder, who has made himself suspect in all his (dealings), both at home and abroad, who resorts to arms because he fears arms, who trusts neither the loyalty of friends nor the affection of his children; (and he) who, when he has surveyed both what he has done and what he is about to do, has laid bare his conscience, full (as it is) of crimes and tortures, often fears to die, (but) more often prays (to do so), (being even) more hateful to himself than (he is) to his servants. (4) On the other hand, he who has a concern for his entire (country), who guards all (of it) more or less (carefully), (who is) inclined to mild (measures), even when it is to his advantage to punish, and shows how reluctant (he is) to turn his hands to harsh remedies, (5) in whose mind there are no hostile or savage (feelings), (but) who exerts his authority calmly and in a beneficial manner, and desires that his officials should be approved of by his countrymen, who thinks his happiness (is) complete if he can share his good fortune with the public, (who is) affable in speech, easy to approach and to gain access to, lovable in his countenance, (a feature) that earns him great popularity with his people, (who is) disposed (to grant all) reasonable requests, nor (is he) harsh even when (they are) unreasonable, (such a prince) is beloved, protected and worshipped by the whole of his community. (6) Men talk of him in private in the same way that (they talk of him) in public. (Under him,) they are eager to bring up sons, and the childlessness, (once) considered necessary due to public ills, is (now) relaxed; no one doubts that he will deserve well of his children, to whom he has revealed so (happy) an age. Such a prince, protected by his own beneficence, needs no bodyguards, and he wears arms (only) for the sake of display.   

Chapter 14. (1) What then is his duty? (It is) the (duty) of good parents, who are sometimes accustomed to scold their children in a good-natured manner, sometimes (to rebuke them) with threats, (and) sometimes even to admonish them with lashes. No sane man disinherits his son after his first offence, (does he)? Nor does he resort to (so) decisive a sentence (as this), unless many grievous wrongs have exhausted his patience, (or) unless what he fears is greater than what he condemns; (but) before (doing this) he tries many (things) by which he may (be able to) reclaim the character (of his son), hesitant (as he is), though still inclined (to be) in a more evil place; (but,) as soon as (the situation) is hopeless, he tries extreme (measures). (Yet) no one resorts to exacting such punishments, unless he has used up (all possible) remedies. (2) That which a father must do (is) also (the duty) of a prince, whom, induced by no empty flattery, we call "The Father of our Country." Now, other surnames are given in honour; (some men) we have called " The Great," and "The Fortunate," and "The August," and we have accumulated whatever titles we could, attributing ostentatious greatness to them by this (means); but we have called (someone) "The Father of our Country" so that he may know that the power of a father has been given to him, (a power,) which is of the mildest (kind), and which has regard for his children and which puts his own (interests) after theirs. (3) A father (would be) slow to cut off (one of) his own limbs; yes, and when he has severed (it), he would long to restore (it), and, in cutting (it) off he would hesitate and lament greatly and for a long time; for he who (condemns) quickly, is close to being willing to condemn; (and he) who (punishes) too much, is close to punishing unjustly.   

Chapter 15. (1) Within my own memory, the people stabbed a Roman knight (called) Tricho in the forum with their writing-pens, because he had killed his son with lashes; (even) the authority of Augustus Caesar could scarcely save him from the furious hands of both fathers and sons. (2) (On the other hand,) no one failed to admire Tarius, who, having detected his son in a plot of parricide, found him guilty after investigating the case, because (he was) satisfied with exile, and a luxurious exile (at that) as he detained the parricide at Marseilles and provided him with the same annual (allowance) that he was accustomed to give (him, when he was still) innocent; this generosity had the result that, in a city where an advocate is never lacking (even) in he case of villains, no one doubted that the accused had been justly condemned, since the father had been able to condemn him, (even though) he could not hate him.

(3) Through this very example, I will show (you the case of) the good prince, whom you may compare with the good father. When he was about to begin the investigation of his son, Tarius invited Caesar Augustus to (attend) the trial; he came to the hearth of a private citizen, sat beside (him), (and) was a part of another man's (family) council; nor did he say: "Nay, let him rather come to my house"; for if he had done (that), the inquiry would have been Caesar's, not the father's. (4) When the case had been heard, and everything had been scrutinised, both the (things) which the young man had said on his own behalf, and the (things) which were alleged (against him), he begged that each man might write down his own verdict, lest everything should happen which would be (in line) with Caesar's (decision); then, before the tablets were opened, he solemnly swore that he would not accept any hereditary bequest from Tarius, (who was) a rich man. (5) Some one might say: "(He must have) a petty mind to fear that it might be thought that he would be minded towards the condemnation of the son in the hope of his inheriting an estate." I think otherwise; any one of us ought to have sufficient trust in his own good conscience to defend himself against malign conjectures, but princes are bound to give much (attention) even to a rumour. (So,) he solemnly swore that he would not accept an inheritance. (6) Indeed on the very same day, Tarius lost a second heir, but Caesar redeemed the independence of his verdict, and, after he proved that his severity was disinterested -  for a prince should always have regard (for this) - , he said that he should be banished to whatever (place) seemed right to his father. (7) He did not sentence (him) to the leather sack, nor to serpents, nor to prison, being mindful not (of him) on whom he was passing sentence, but (of him) with whom he was (sitting) in judgement; he said that a father ought to be satisfied with the mildest kind of punishment with regard to a very young son (who had been) pushed into (committing) this crime, in which he had behaved (so) timidly that he was not very far from (being) innocent (of it); (nevertheless,) he ought to be removed from the city and from his father's sight.    

Chapter 16. (1) How worthy (was the man,) whom fathers asked to (share) their counsels! How worthy (was the man,) whom they designated as co-heir with their innocent children! This (is) the (sort of) clemency (that) befits a prince; wherever he should go, he should make everything more malleable. 

No one should be so despicable to a king that he should not notice that he is dying; whatever (he may be), he is a part of the realm. (2) With regard to great forms of power, let us seek an example from lesser (ones). There is not (only) one kind of power; a prince exercises power over his citizens, a father over his children, a teacher over his students, a tribune or centurion over his soldiers. (3) Would he not be thought the worst (kind of) father who controls his children with constant lashes for even the most trivial reasons? Yet, which teacher of liberal studies (is) the worthier, (he) who flays the bodies of his pupils, if their memory does not hold up, or if their nimble eyes do not stick (to the lines) while they are reading, or (he) who prefers to improve and instruct (them) by warnings and by (giving them a sense of) shame? (4) Give (me) a harsh tribune or a centurion: he will cause deserters, who may yet be pardoned. (4) For do you think that it is just for a man to be ruled more severely and harshly than we rule dumb animals? Yet, a master skilled in taming (horses) does not terrify a horse by frequent blows; for it will become fearful and stubborn, if you do not soothe (it) with the caressing touch (of your hand). (5) The hunter acts in the same way, whenever he teaches young whelps to follow tracks and when he uses (those who are) already trained to rouse wild beasts and pursue (them): he does not often threaten them - for he would break their spirit (if he did) and whatever nature they have would be impaired by an unworthy fear - , nor does he give (them) licence to roam and wander around in all directions. You may also apply these (things) to (those who are) driving the more sluggish beasts of burden, which, although they were born to (meet with) ill-treatment and miseries, may (yet) be compelled by excessive cruelty to refuse the yoke. 

Chapter 17. (1) No creature is more difficult (to manage), none needs to be handled with greater skill than a man, and none should be treated more sparingly (than he). For what is more foolish than that we should blush to vent our anger on beasts of burden and dogs, (and) yet (allow) a man to be held in the worst of circumstances under (another) man? We are cured of diseases and are not angered (by them); yet, this too is a disease of the mind; it requires gentle treatment and a healer (who is) in no way hostile to (the one who is) sick. (2) It is (the sign) of a bad doctor to despair of effecting a cure; he to whom the health of all (men) is entrusted ought to act in the same way with regard to those whose minds are weakened, nor (to be) quick to give up hope or to pronounce that the symptoms are fatal; he should wrestle with vices, (and) put a stop (to them), he should reproach some for their malady and he should deceive others by a tender (mode of) treatment, and he will cure them more quickly and more thoroughly, if the remedies should escape their notice; (in the same way,) a prince should take care not only of (his people's) welfare, but also that their scars (should be) honourable. (3) A king derives no glory from cruel punishments - for who can doubt that he has the power (to inflict them)? - , but, on the other hand, much good (will come to him), if he can keep his power in check, if can save many from the wrath of others, (and) assign no one to his own.     

Chapter 18. (1) It is creditable to command slaves in a moderate fashion. Even in the case of a human possession one ought to consider, not how much he can suffer without impunity, but how much the natural (principle) of equity and goodness, which requires (you) to act sparingly even towards prisoners of war and (those whom have) procured for a price, permits you (to inflict). How much more justly does it require (you) to treat (them) as decent freeborn men, (and) not as chattels, but as those whom you surpass in station, and (whose) protection, not their servitude, has been entrusted to you. (2) Slaves are allowed to seek refuge at the statue (of a god); although the laws allow everything (to be done) with regard to a slave, (yet) with regard to a human being, there is something which the common right of (all) living creatures refuses to allow.

(3) Just as cruel masters are pointed at (with scorn) in all (parts of) the city, and are hated and loathed, so too is the injustice of kings exposed more widely, and their infamy and the hatred (they incur) are handed down through the ages; yet, how much better it would have been not to have been born than to be numbered among (those who have been) born to harm the public. 

Chapter 19. (1) By whatever means or by whatever right he has been put in charge of other (men), no one can imagine anything that is more becoming to a sovereign than clemency,  We shall, of course, confess it to be the more beautiful and the more admirable, the greater the power under which it is displayed, and this ought not to be harmful, if it is joined to nature's law. (2) For nature (herself) has devised (the idea of) a king, (something) which you may learn about from other animals, and, (especially,) from bees; their king (n.b. the ancients did not realise that bees have a queen not a king) has the most spacious cell and (it is situated) in a central and very safe spot; moreover, he (himself) is free from work (and is) the superintendent of the work of the others, and, if they lose their king, they all scatter, and they never tolerate more than one, and they discover the (one which is) better through a fight; furthermore, the appearance of the king is striking and different from (that of) the others, both in size and in splendour. (3) However, his most remarkable distinction (is) this: (while) bees are very irascible and, in relation to the size of their bodies, the most pugnacious (of creatures), and they leave their stings in their wounds, the king, himself, is without a sting; nature did not want him to be cruel, or to seek a revenge that would be very costly, and has taken away his weapon and left his anger unarmed. 

This is a mighty model for great kings; for it is her custom to busy herself in small (matters) and to provide the smallest examples of great things. (4) We should not be ashamed to take lessons from such small creatures, since the mind of man ought to be more restrained as it can do such great harm. Would that the same law were (applied) to man, and that his anger was destroyed together with its weapon, and that he could not do harm more often than once, nor wreak his  hatreds through the strength of others! For his rage would readily grow tired, if he could (only) satisfy it through himself, and if he could (only) give vent to his violence at the risk of death. (5) But not even now is this a safe course for a man; for he must fear as much as he wishes to be feared, and he must watch every man's hands, and, even at a time when he is not being pursued, he must consider that he is under attack, and he cannot have a single moment free from fear. Could anyone endure to live such a life, when, (being) harmless to others, and, for this (reason), fearless, he can manage the beneficial right of power to the joy of all? For it is an error, if anyone thinks that the king is safe in a place where nothing is safe from the king; security must be exchanged for reciprocal security. (6) There is no need (for him) to erect lofty citadels on high, nor to secure steep hills against ascent, nor to cut away mountains, nor to protect himself with multiple walls and towers: (it is) well known that mercy will keep a king safe. His one impregnable defence is the love of his citizens. 

(7) What is more glorious than to live a life which all (men) hope (will be a long one), and for which they all voice their prayers when no one is watching (them)? (And) to excite not men's hopes but their fears, if one's health falters a little? (And) when no one should have anything so precious that he would not be willing to exchange it for his chieftain's safety? (8) O (let) nothing happen to him, as he would also owe (it) to himself to live (a long life); to that extent he has shown by constant proofs of his goodness, that the state does not belong to him, but (that he belongs) to the state. Who would dare to plot any danger to such (a man as him), under whose (sway) justice, peace, chastity, security, (and) honour (all) flourish, (and) under whom the state abounds in an opulent store of good (things)? Nor should he look upon his ruler with any other emotion than, if the immortal gods would vouchsafe (us) the power to behold (them), we should gaze at (them, while) venerating and worshipping (them). (9) Now what? Does he not keep a place very close to those (very beings), who behaves in accordance with the nature of the gods, (and who is) obliging and generous, and uses his power for the better? It is right to aspire to be like him and to imitate him, so that you may be thought (to be) the greatest as well as the best (of mankind). 

Chapter 20. (1) A prince usually inflicts punishment for (one of) two reasons, either to assert his own rights or (those of) another. With regard to this situation, I shall first discuss (the one) which concerns himself, for it is more difficult to be restrained when taking revenge is the result of anguish rather than when (it is used to deliver) a warning. (2) At this point it is superfluous to warn (him) not to believe (too) readily, but to examine the truth (with care), to favour innocence, and to appear to understand that (what has been) done (is) no less the business of the one who is on trial as (it is that) of the judge; now we are encouraging (him) to keep his feelings under control, (even) when he has been clearly injured, and to remit any punishment, if he can (do so) in safety, (and,) if not, to act with temperance, and to be much more understanding with regard to his own injuries than with regard to (those done) to others. (3) For just as the magnanimous (man) is not (the one) who is free with another's (belongings), but he who deprives himself of what he gives to someone else, so I shall not call (him) merciful (who looks) good-naturedly upon another's misfortune, but him who, (even) when he is harassed by stings of his own, does not become restive, but who understands that it is magnanimous to endure injuries (even) in (the midst of) supreme power, and that nothing is more glorious than a prince who has received an injury without avenging (it). 

Chapter 21. (1)  Revenge usually achieves two purposes: it either brings compensation to the (person) who has received the wrong, or (it provides him with) security for the future. The wealth of a prince is too great for him to need compensation, and his power is too evident for him to seek a reputation for strength by harming another. I am talking of a situation, when (he is) attacked and injured by his inferiors; for if he sees that (those) whom he once regarded (as) his equals, (are now) beneath him, he is sufficiently avenged. A slave, and a serpent, and an arrow may kill a king; yet no one can save (a man), unless he is greater than the one whom he saved. (2) So, (he who has) the power of giving and taking away life ought to (use) that great gift of the gods in a thoughtful manner. (This is so,) especially (when) he has obtained his superiority over those whom he knows (were) once equal to him, (and he has) acquired the knowledge that he has discharged his revenge and accomplished all that was enough for genuine punishment; for he must have (already) have lost his life who owes (it to someone else), and, whoever (has been) cast down from on high (and lies) at the feet of his enemy, and has awaited the verdict of another concerning his life and his throne, increases (both) the glory of his saviour and (that) of his own reputation more if he lives and (remains) unhurt, than if he is removed from the the eyes (of men). For he remains a constant testimony (to the prowess) of another; (whereas) in a triumph he would have passed quickly (out of sight). (3) But, if it has also been possible safely to leave his throne in his possession, and to restore (him) to the place from which he has fallen, his fame will grow with increasing greatness, as he was content to take from a conquered king nothing but his glory. This is to triumph even over his own victories, and to prove that he had found nothing in the possession of the vanquished that was worthy of a victor. (4) (When dealing) with his fellow-citizens, and the unknown, and (those who are) of a lowly status, you should treat them in a more moderate manner, as it is less (of a problem) to crush them. Some you would gladly spare, and in the case of some you would be reluctant to vindicate yourself, just as, in the case of little insects which defile you when you crush (them), it is necessary to withdraw you hands; but, with regard to those who (are) on the community's lips, (both those who) have been saved or punished, you should take advantage of the opportunity for a notable (act of) mercy.  

Chapter 22. (1) Let us (now) pass on to the injuries (done) to others, in avenging which the law has pursued these three (ends), (things) which a prince also ought to aim at: (these are) either that it improves him, whom it punishes, or that his punishment may make other (men) better, or that, when bad (man) are removed (from the scene), the rest may live more securely. You will improve the (men) themselves more readily by a slight punishment; for he, to whom something is left untouched, will live more carefully. No one is protective of a ruined reputation; it is now a kind of impunity to have no opportunity left for punishment. (2) Moreover, (to be) sparing of punishments will better correct the morals of the community; for a multitude of sinners creates a habit of sinning, and (a habit) that a host of condemnations makes it easier (to adopt) is thought (to be) less shameful, and the severity which provides the greatest remedy loses its authority through frequent repetition. (3) A prince will establish a good (standard of) morals for his state, and he will wash away vices, if (only) he is patient in (dealing) with them - not as if he should seem to approve (of them) but as if he should come to punishing (them) with reluctance and with great (personal) suffering. The very mercifulness of a sovereign creates a dread of sinning; a punishment which is decreed by a mild man seems much heavier (than it is). 

Chapter 23. (1) Moreover, you will discover that the sins which are frequently punished (are the ones which) are frequently committed. Your father (i.e. Claudius) sewed up more men in a sack (i.e. a leather bag designed to hold liquids) within a five-year period than we understand to have been sewn up in all (previous) centuries. Children were much less ready to commit the ultimate offence (i.e. parricide), when this crime was without its (own special) law. For, in their very great wisdom, men of the highest (distinction), and most experienced in the nature of things, preferred to pass over this crime as if (it were) unbelievable, and (were) regarded (as) beyond anyone's audacity, (rather) than, while punishing (it), to show that it could be done; so, parricides began with a law, and the punishment pointed out (the fact of) the deed to their children; and, in truth, filial piety was (now) in a bad place, after we saw (that) sacks (were used) more often than crosses (i.e. the instruments upon which most criminals were executed by crucifixion). (2) In a state in which men are rarely punished, a common understanding of innocence is created, and it is encouraged as a public benefit. A state, which thinks itself to be innocent, will be; it will be all the more angry with those who deviate from the common (sense of) restraint, if it sees that they are (but) a few. It is dangerous, believe me, to show a state how evil so many (men) are.  

Chapter 24. (1) A proposal was once put forward by the senate that their dress should distinguish slaves from free men; it then became apparent how great a danger would threaten (us) if our slaves had begun to count our numbers. Be assured that you should be afraid of the same (thing happening) if no one is pardoned; it will quickly become apparent how far the inferior element of the community would outnumber (us). Numerous executions are no less shameful to a prince than numerous funerals (are) to a physician; one who governs more mildly is better obeyed. (2) The mind of a man is obstinate by nature, and it struggles against hostility and hardship, and it follows more readily than it is led; and, as well-bred and high-spirited horses are better managed by a loose rein, so voluntary integrity pursues mercy under its own impulse, and the state thinks that what it keeps safe (is) worthwhile. So, by these means more good is accomplished. 

Chapter 25. (1) Cruelty is not at all a vice of man, and (is) so unworthy of his gentle spirit; it is the madness of a wild beast to delight in blood and wounds, and to cast off the man and turn (oneself) into  a creature of the woods. For what is the difference, I ask you, Alexander, (whether) you throw Lysimachus (n.b. he was one of Alexander the Great's bodyguards and is reputed to have been sentenced to death for some offence by being shut up in a chamber with a lion; however, he killed the lion with his own hands and afterwards became a great favourite of Alexander, becoming in due course one of his successor kings) to a lion, or (whether) you yourself tear (him) to pieces with your teeth? That mouth is yours (and) yours (is) its savagery. O how much rather you would have wished that those claws could be yours, (and) that those gaping jaws of yours should be capable of devouring men! We do not expect of you that that hand of yours, the sure murderer of your closest friends, should be of any benefit to anyone, (or) that your proud spirit, that insatiable (source of) evil to (all) nations, should be satisfied (with anything) short of blood and slaughter; it is now called mercy when the butcher who must (undertake) the killing of your friend is chosen from among men. (2) It is for this reason that cruelty should be (considered) so very abominable, because firstly it goes well beyond the usual limits, then those of humanity, (and) it searches for new (kinds of) punishment, it summons ingenuity (into play) to invent new devices, through which suffering can be varied and prolonged, (and) it delights in the afflictions of mankind; then, the dread disease of the mind reaches the furthest (point of) insanity, when cruelty has turned into a (source of) pleasure, and to kill a man has now become a joy. (3) Loathing, hatred, poisons, (and) the sword follows at the heels of such a man; he is assailed by as many perils as the many (men) to whom he himself is a peril, and sometimes he is beset by the plots of private individuals, (and) at other times even by a public uprising. For the trivial destruction of a private individual does not move whole cities, (but that) which begins to cause widespread rage and affects everyone is shot at from all directions. (4) Tiny snakes go unnoticed, nor are they publicly hunted; (but) when one of them exceeds its usual size and grows into a monster, (and,) when it poisons fountains with its spittle, and, if it breathes, it scorches and ruins (everything) wherever it slithers, it is assailed by catapults. Petty evils can cheat and evade (us), but we take action against the big (ones). (5) So, one sick (person) does not even disturb his household; but when it is apparent from frequent deaths that there is a plague, there is an outcry and a flight from the community, and our fists are shaken at the very gods themselves. (If) a fire is seen beneath some single roof, the family and their neighbours hurl water (on it); but a vast conflagration, which has already destroyed many houses, leads to the ruin of a large (part) of the city.  

Chapter 26. (1) The hands of slaves have (sometimes) avenged the cruelty of private individuals, even under the certain risk of crucifixion; nations and peoples have sought the destruction of tyrants, both those who have experienced their wickedness and those whom it threatened. Sometimes their own guardsmen have risen against them, and have practised upon them their own treachery, and disloyalty, and brutality, and whatever else they may have learned from them. For what can anyone expect from him, whom he has taught to be evil? For (a man's) wickedness is not to be seen for a long time, nor does it offend for as long as it is bid. (2) But suppose cruelty can be (exercised) in safety, what sort of kingdom would this be? Just like the shape of captured cities and the frightful scenes of public panic. Everywhere (there is) sadness, alarm, (and) disorder; their very pleasures are the source of dread; they cannot attend banquets in safety, where they must carefully guard their tongues, even in their cups, nor (go to) public performances, at which the material for an accusation and a lawsuit (against them) is sought. Although great outlays are apparent from the wealth of royalty and from the famous names of the artists, yet what delights can games bring (when you are) in prison?       

(3) Good god, what a wretched (thing) it is to kill, to rage, to delight at the sound of chains, and to cut off the heads of one's fellow-citizens, (and,) wherever one goes, to shed much blood and terrify (everyone) and cause them to flee from one's sight? What else (than this) would life be (like), if lions and bears were our masters, (and) if power over us were to be given to serpents and each of the most harmful creatures? (4) (Even) these (animals), devoid of reason (as they are) and condemned by us of the crime of savagery, spare their own (kind), and likeness provides (a source of) safety even among wild beasts; (but) the fury (of tyrants) is not withheld even from their own kin, but strangers and friends are treated alike, and the more they indulge their passion, the more violent (it becomes). Then he proceeds from the slaughter of individuals to the ruin of nations, and he thinks (it is a sign) of his power to set fire to roofs, (and) to drive a plough over (the sites of) ancient cities; and he considers that to order one or two (people) to be put to death (is) too small (a show of) imperial (might); unless a herd of poor wretches are stood beneath the blade at the same time, he thinks his cruelty has been checked.     

(5) True happiness (lies) in giving safety to many (people) and in calling (them) back to life from the very (verge of) death, and by earning the civic (crown) by (showing) mercy. No ornament is more worthy than the eminence of a prince or more beautiful than that crown for saving (the lives) of fellow-citizens; not the hostile weapons torn from the vanquished, nor chariots stained with the blood of barbarians, nor the spoils acquired in war. This power which saves in crowds and all together is godlike; but to kill (so) many and (to do so) indiscriminately, is the power of fire and ruin.   

BOOK II. 

Chapter 1. (1) A single utterance of yours, Nero Caesar, has especially led me, to write on the subject of mercy, and, when it was said, I remember that I heard (it) not without admiration, and then that I told (it) to others, (as it was) a noble saying, (showing) your great mind and your great gentleness, which, (while) it was not composed or prepared for others' ears, suddenly burst out (from you), and it brought out into the open your kind-heartedness, as you chafed against your lot. (2) Your prefect Burrus (i.e. Sextus Afranius Burrus, A.D 1-62, Prefect of the Praetorian Guard), a distinguished man, and born (to serve such) a prince as you, was about to order the execution of two brigands, (and) was pressing you to write down who (they were) and the grounds on which you wished (them) to be executed, (and) he was insisting. When he reluctantly produced the document and handed (it) to you, (who was also) reluctant, you exclaimed: "I wish I had never learned my letters!" (3) O worthy saying which all nations should hear, (those) who inhabit the Roman empire, and (those) who dwell on its borders, uncertain of their liberty, and (those) who, through their strength or their courage, rise up against it! O saying which should have been spoken at a meeting of all mankind, whose words (all) princes and kings should swear (to honour)! O saying worthy of the universal innocence of the human race, to whom that ancient (golden) age should be restored! (4) Now we really ought to agree to (love) righteousness and goodness and to drive away the desire for (the belongings) of others, from which arises every evil of the heart, that piety and uprightness should rise again together with honour and temperance, and that vice, having misused its long reign, should give way at last to an age of happiness and purity. 

Chapter 2. (1) We like to hope and trust, Caesar, that, to a great extent, this will happen. Let that mildness of your heart be gradually transmitted and spread throughout the whole body of the empire, and that all (parts of it) will be shaped in your likeness. Good health (comes) from the head: as a result, all (things) are lively and alert, or drooping with weariness, according as to whether their animating spirit has life or is withering away. There will be citizens, there will be allies (who are) worthy of this goodness, and upright morals will be restored to the whole world; everywhere your hands will be spared. (2) Allow me to linger (a little) longer on this (saying of yours), not so that (it is) flattering to your ears - for this is not my custom; I would prefer to offend by (telling) the truth than to curry favour by flattery -; what then is (my reason for doing so)? Besides wishing that you should be as familiar as possible with your own good deeds and remarks, so that what is now a natural impulse may become a (matter of considered) judgment, I am reflecting upon this in my (mind) that many great, but dreadful, sayings have entered into human life and have become publicly famous, such as this (one): "Let them hate (me), so long as they fear (me)," which is like that Greek verse, in which a man bids the earth be engulfed in fires after he is dead (i.e. έμοῦ θανόντος γαῖα μιχθήτω πνρί, see the Greek Anthology 704), and others of this type. (3) But, I know not how, (men of) talent, when dealing with a savage and hateful theme, have orally expressed violent and aggressive thoughts in a more propitious (manner); never yet have I heard from good and gentle (lips) such a spirited voice. What then is (my conclusion)? (It is) that on rare occasions, (and) with great reluctance, and with much hesitation, you must sometimes write the kind of thing, which has led you to hate your letters, but (you should do so), as you do (now), with great hesitation and with many postponements.  

Chapter 3. (1) But lest perhaps the plausible name of mercy should sometimes deceive us and lead (us) into the opposite (direction), let us see what mercy is, and what is its nature, and what limits it has.  

Mercy is the restraining of the mind when it has the power to avenge, or the lenience of a man of high rank when fixing the punishment of a man of inferior status. Lest one definition may not cover the (whole) subject, and, so to speak, the case (for it) is lost, it is safer to propose more (than one); and so it can also be called an inclination of the mind towards lenience in exacting punishment. (2) The following definition may meet with objections, however closely it comes to the truth, if we should say that mercy is the moderation that remits something from a punishment that is deserved and due: the objection will be made that no virtue (ever) gives any man less than his due. And yet all (men) understand that mercy is something that stops short of the (penalty) which could be justly inflicted.      

Chapter 4. (1) (Those who are) ignorant think that its opposite (is) severity; but no virtue is opposite to a virtue. What then is the opposite of mercy? (It is) cruelty, which is nothing other than harshness of mind in exacting punishments. "But," (you say, "there are) some (who) do not exact punishments, yet are cruel, such as (those) who kill men (who are) unknown (to them), and not for the purpose of gain, but for the sake of killing, and not content with killing, they torture (them), such as that Busiris (i.e. a king of Egypt who used to sacrifice strangers, and was killed by Hercules) and Procrustes (i.e. an Attic highwayman, who tortured his victims on a bed, and who was killed by Theseus) and those pirates who flog their captives and (then) place (them) alive in a fire." (2) This, indeed, (is) cruelty, but it does not aim at vengeance - for there has been no injury - nor is anger aroused by any sin - for no crime preceded (it) - , it falls outside our definition; for our definition comprised a lack of mental restraint when exacting punishments. We may say that this is not cruelty, but a ferocity that finds pleasure in torture; (or) we may call (it) madness: for there are many kinds of this, and there is nothing more surely (related to madness) than (that) which leads to the slaughter and mangling of human beings. (3) I shall therefore call those (persons) cruel, who do have a reason for punishing, (but who) have no (sense of) moderation, like Phalaris (i.e. the tyrant of Acragas on the south coast of Sicily in the middle of the sixth century B.C. who was renowned for his excessive cruelty), who is said to have tortured men, even (though they were) not innocent, but (to have done so) in an inhuman and incredible manner. We can avoid sophistry and define (things) in such a way that cruelty is an inclination of the mind towards harshness. This (quality) mercy repels, and bids (it) stand far away from it; (but) with strictness it is in harmony.    

(4) It is pertinent to our subject to ask at this point what pity is; for very many (people) commend it as a virtue, and call a man good (who is) full of pity. (But) this too is a mental defect. For both of these (qualities) (i.e. cruelty and pity) are built around strictness and around mercy, and we ought to avoid them; for on the pretext of strictness we fall into cruelty, (and) on the pretext of mercy (we fall) into pity. In the latter (case) one can err with less risk, but the error of departing from the truth is equal (in both cases). 

Chapter 5. (1)  Therefore, just as religion honours the gods, (while) superstition violates (them), so all good men will show mercy and gentleness, but will avoid pity; for it is the failing of a weak mind that it succumbs to the sight of others' misfortunes. So it is most commonly found among all the worst (people); there are old women and girls, who are moved by the tears of the most wicked (criminals), (and) who, if they could, would break open their prison. Pity does not see the cause (of something), but (merely) the misfortune (that follows); mercy takes account of reason. 

(2) I know that the school of the Stoics is unpopular among the ill-informed, as being excessively harsh and not all likely to give good counsel to princes and kings; the criticism is made of it that it denies the wise man (the right) to show pity, (and) denies (him the right) to pardon. These (stipulations), if taken by themselves, are (indeed) odious; for they appear to leave no hope of (repairing) human errors, but all wrongs lead to punishment. (3) But, if this is (the case), what wisdom can it be that bids (us) forget human (feeling) and exclude (ourselves) from mutual assistance, that surest haven (of refuge) against misfortune? But no school (of philosophy) is more benign and more gentle, nor more loving of mankind and more concerned to promote the common good, (seeing) that it sets out to be of service and of help, not to itself only, but to consult the interests of each and all of us. (4) Pity is a sickness of the mind, brought about by the sight of other men's miseries, or the sadness (which arises) from other men's misfortunes, which it believes have been inflicted undeservedly; but no sorrow befalls the wise man; his mind is serene, and nothing can happen which will disturb it. And nothing befits a man more than a great mind; but a great (mind) and a sorrowful (one) cannot be the same. (5) Sorrow blunts (men's) minds, dissipates and hampers (them); this cannot happen to the wise man, even in his greatest misfortunes, but he will beat back every rage of fortune and crush it beforehand; he will always preserve the same calm, unshaken appearance, (something) which he could not do, if he were susceptible to sorrow.  

Chapter 6. (1) Add (to this) that the wise (man) also has foresight, (and) has a plan in readiness; yet nothing clear and pure ever comes from a disturbed (source). Sorrow is unfit to discern courses of action, to devise useful expedients, to avoid dangers, or to weigh just (causes); so, (the wise man) will not feel pity, because this does not happen unless he has a mental affliction. (2) He will do gladly and with an exalted spirit all those (things), which (those) who feel pity are wont to do; he will dry another's tears, (but) he will not add (his own); he will give his hand to the shipwrecked (mariner), (he will offer) hospitality to the exile, (and) alms to the needy, not in that offensive (manner), in which the greater part of those who wish to appear full of pity (would act), (when) he throws down (his alms) and scorns (those) whom he assists, and fears to be touched by them, but as a man would give a man from the common (stock); he will restore a son amid a mother's tears, and he will order (a prisoner's) chains to be loosed, and he will bury the body even of a criminal, but he will do these (things) with a tranquil mind and with a countenance (all) of his own. (3) So, the wise (man) will not pity (people) but will succour (them) and be of service to (them), seeing that he was born to (bring) help to all and to serve the welfare of the public, from (the stock) of which he will give everyone a share. He will even entrust a due measure of his bounty to those disastrous (persons) who deserve to be censured and corrected; but he will much more willingly come to the assistance of the distressed and (those) struggling with misfortune. Whenever he can, he will obstruct (the stroke) of fortune; for how will he make better use of his resources and his strength than to restore what chance has overthrown? Nor indeed will he avert his countenance or his sympathy because of some man's dry or ragged skin, and because he is supporting his aged body with a staff; but he will do good to all (those) who deserve (it), and, like the gods, he will look graciously upon (all those) who are in trouble. 

(4) Pity is akin to misery; for it is (partly) composed of it and (partly) derived from it. You know that eyes are weak if they themselves become suffused at (the sight of) another's bleariness, just as it is not merriment but a disease, by god, always to laugh when (others) are laughing, and (it is) also (a disease) to open one's jaws whenever all others are yawning; pity is a defect in the minds (of those) who are excessively disturbed by suffering, and, if anyone requires this from a wise (man), it is very similar to requiring lamentation and groans (from him) at the funerals of strangers.  

Chapter 7. (1) "But," (some may ask,) "why should he not pardon?" Well then, let us now also decide what a pardon is, and we shall know that it ought not to be granted by a wise (man). A pardon is the remission of a deserved punishment. Those, of whom this (question) has been asked, give the reason at some length why a wise (man) ought not to grant this; so I shall speak briefly, as though I am (expressing) the opinion of another: "Pardon is given to someone who ought to be punished; but a wise man does nothing which he ought not to do, (and) he omits (to do) nothing which he ought (to do), and so he does not condone a punishment which he ought to exact. (2) But he will bestow upon you in a more honourable way that which you wish to attain from a pardon, for the wise (man) will show forbearance, will be considerate, and will put (things) right; he will do the same (thing) that (he would do), if he were to pardon, and yet he will not pardon, since (he) who does pardon, admits that he has neglected (to do) something which ought to have been done. One man he will only admonish with words, and he will not inflict a punishment if he considers that his age will permit his reform; another man, who is clearly struggling under the odium of crime, he will order to be acquitted, because he was deceived, or because he lapsed on account of (drinking) wine; he lets his enemies go unharmed, sometimes even having praised (them), if they were summoned to war for honourable reasons, such as to maintain their loyalty, or a treaty, or their liberty. (3) All these (actions) are not works of pardon but of mercy. Mercy has the freedom of decision; it does not make judgments on the basis of some (legal) formula, but in accordance with what is fair and good; it may absolve a man, and assess damages at whatever (rate) it wishes. It does none of these (things), as though it were doing less than is just, but as though that which it has decided is the most just (decision); but to pardon is to fail to punish someone whom you judge (to be) worthy of punishment; pardon is the remission of a punishment which is due. Mercy performs The first (duty) that mercy performs (is) this, that it declares that (those) whom it lets off ought not to have suffered anything else; it is more comprehensive, and more honourable, than a pardon."    

(4) As my opinion indicates, this is a disagreement about words, but there is agreement about the matter (at issue). The wise (man) will remit many (punishments), (and) he will preserve many (who are) not at all sound, but (who are) of a curable character. He will be like good farmers, who cultivate not only the trees that are straight; but they also attach stakes to those which are crooked for some reason; others they trim, in order that their branches do not restrict their height, they fertilise some (that are) weak due to poor soil, (and,) to some (that are) suffering from the shade of others, they expose the sky. (5) (The wise man) will see that (a man's) character can be managed by some treatment, that the (things that are) crooked can be turned into (something) straight ..... (? unfinished.)

  

   

  

    

      

  

                         

 

ST. PAUL'S EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS.

ST. PAUL'S EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS. 

Introduction:

Although Sabidius has followed the Authorised Version of the Bible in attributing the 'Epistle to the Hebrews' to Paul in the above title, there is widespread recognition among biblical scholars that he himself was not the author of this letter, the vocabulary and style of which are markedly uncharacteristic of Paul, nor does the author identify himself, contrary to Paul's usual practice. The most likely alternative author is the Alexandrian Jew Apollos, although Barnabas has been considered by some as another. However, while Paul may not have written the letter himself, the views it expresses are entirely compatible with his own beliefs, and, as he is likely to have been the principal influence on its contents,  it is not unreasonable to include 'To the Hebrews' in the 'corpus Paulinum'. 

As to the date of the epistle, it must have been written before the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple by the Romans in 70 A.D., since, if it had been written after that date, the author would most certainly have mentioned this destruction and the consequent termination of the temple's sacrificial functions. At the same time, the constant use of the Greek present tense when describing the temple, and the priestly activities connected with it, clearly indicates that the temple was still functioning when the epistle was written. As to a more specific date, we just do not know: the epistle was probably written in the late 50's or early 60's A.D. Nor do we know where the epistle was written, and, although its final greeting, "Those who are from Italy send you their greetings" (Bk. 13. v. 24) is sometimes taken to mean that it was written in Italy, this is not necessarily the case, and, indeed the use of the preposition "ἀπό" (from) in this context does not assist such a conclusion. 

While the title "To the Hebrews" was not actually adopted until some time in the Second Century A.D., it is certainly well chosen, as the epistle clearly assumes a very thorough knowledge of the Old Testament and the practices of the old covenant. The letter is evidently addressed to Jewish Christians, and possibly even Jewish priests in view of its emphasis on public worship and ceremonial. It is also possible that their faith was not strong and that they were contemplating reverting to Judaism and its traditional practices, and that the purpose of the epistle was to avoid this happening.  

The central theme or message of "To the Hebrews" is the absolute supremacy and sufficiency of Jesus Christ as the mediator of God's grace to mankind, and to demonstrate how the promises and prophecies of the Old Testament are fulfilled in the new covenant. Christ is shown to be far superior to the angels, to the ancient prophets, to Moses, the mediator of the old covenant, and to his brother Aaron and the succession of priests deriving from him. Readers are firmly told that there can be no going back to the ways of the old Jewish covenant, now superseded by the unique priesthood of Jesus, whose atoning death, resurrection, ascension, and imminent coming again have revealed the way into the true heavenly sanctuary where God is present. The epistle provides an excellent example of how the earliest Christians conceived the harmony of the Old and New Testaments, and the full significance of the redemptive work of Jesus in respect of God's whole plan of salvation for mankind, and, for this reason, it is surely one of the cornerstones of the New Testament. The centrality of faith for a Christian is constantly stressed throughout the work, as indeed are the disastrous consequences for those individual Christians who may fall away. While it is clearly addressed specifically to the needs and mindset of Jewish Christian converts, it is still essential reading for any Christians who want to clarify the substance of their faith. 

CHAPTER 1. 

God speaks by means of his Son (vv. 1-4).

(1) God, having spoken to our forefathers in the past on several occasions and in various ways by means of the prophets, (2) has spoken to us at the end of these days through his Son, "whom he appointed heir of all (things)" (vid. Psalms 2. 8), (and) through whom he also made the universe; when he, being the reflection of his glory and the (exact) representation of his being, and sustaining all things by the word of his power, had undertaken a purification of our sins (i.e. by means of his crucifixion), "he sat down at the right (hand) of the Majesty on high" (i.e. God in heaven) (vid. Psalms 110. 1), having become so much better than the angels, in that he has inherited a name more outstanding than theirs. 

The Son is greater than the angels (vv. 5-14). 

(5) For to which of the angels did he ever say, "You are my son, (and) today I have begotten you," (Psalms 2. 7) and again, "I shall be a father to him, and he, himself, will be a son to me?" (2 Samuel 7. 18; Chronicles 17. 13) (6) And again, when he brings his firstborn into the inhabited earth, he says, "And let all God's angels bow the knee to him in worship." (Deuteronomy 32. 43 lxx; Psalms 97. 7.)

(7) And, with regard to the angels, he says: "He makes his angels spirits and his servants a flame of fire;" (Psalms 104. 4) (8) But, with reference to the Son, (he says), "God (is) your throne forever and ever, and the sceptre of your kingdom is the sceptre of righteousness. You loved righteousness and you hated iniquity; therefore, your God has anointed you with the oil of exultation more than your companions" (Psalms 45. 6-7); (10) And "you, Lord, in the beginning laid the foundations of the earth, and the heavens are the work of your hands; (11) they will perish but you will continue to remain; and they will all grow old like an outer garment, (12) and, as if (they were) a cloak, you will roll them up like an outer garment, and they will be changed; but you are the same, and your years will not come to an end" (Psalms 102. 25-27.) 

(13) But to which of the angels has he ever said, "Sit at my right (hand) until I place your enemies (as) a footstool under your feet" (Psalms 110. 1)?  (14) Are they not all ministering spirits, sent out to (do) service for those who are about to inherit salvation?

CHAPTER 2.

The great salvation (vv. 1-4).

(1) For this reason, we ought to pay greater attention to the (things) that were heard, lest we should ever drift away. (2) For, if the word spoken through angels (i.e. the Law given to Moses at Sinai) proved (to be) true, and every transgression and (act of) disobedience received the punishment it deserved, (3) how shall we ever escape, if we disregard so great a salvation, which was proclaimed in the first place by the Lord, and was (then) confirmed to us by those who heard (him), (4) while God joined them in bearing witness by signs, and wonders, and miracles of all kinds, and by gifts of the Holy Spirit according to his will?

All things are subjected to Jesus (vv. 5-9). 

(5) For he did not subject the world to come, about which we are speaking, to angels; (6) but someone has somewhere (i.e. Psalms 8. 4-6) borne witness (to him), saying, "What is man, that you are mindful of him, or that you take care of him? (7) You made him a little lower than the angels, you crowned him with glory and honour, and put him in charge of the work of your hands. (8) You have all (things) in subjection under his feet" (Psalms 8. 5-7 lxx); for by subjecting all things to him, he (i.e. God) left nothing (that is) not subject to him. But now we do not yet see all the things that are subjected to him; (9) but we do see Jesus, who was made a little lower than the angels on account of the suffering of death, crowned with honour and glory, so that by the grace of God he might have the taste of death on behalf of (us) all. 

Jesus and his brothers (vv. 10-18).

(10) For it befitted him, for whom all things and through whom all things (exist), (when) bringing many sons to glory, to make the author of their salvation perfect through sufferings. (11) For both he who is consecrating and those who are being consecrated all (stem) from one (stock); (and) for this reason he is not ashamed to call them brothers, (12) saying, "I will declare your name to my brothers, and in the midst of the congregation I will sing your praise" (Psalms 22. 22). (13) And again, "I will put my trust in him." (Isaiah 8. 17 lxx; vid. 2 Samuel 22. 3 lxx; vid. Isaiah 12. 2). And again, "Behold, I and the children, whom God gave me" (Isaiah 8. 18).

(14) So, since the children have shared in flesh and blood, he also similarly participated in the same (things), so that by his death he might invalidate the one who had the power of death, that is the devil, (15) and might set free (i.e. by his resurrection, which guarantees that dead believers will rise) all those who through fear of death were subject to bondage through all of their lives. (16) For, assuredly, he is not helping angels, but "he is assisting the seed of Abraham" (vid. Isaiah 41. 8-9). (17) Therefore, he was obliged to become like his brothers in all (things), that he might become a compassionate and faithful high-priest of things relating to God in order to make atonement for the sins of the people; (18) for in that he himself has suffered, when being put to the test, he is able to come to the assistance of those who are being tested.  

CHAPTER 3.

Jesus is greater than Moses (vv. 1-6). 

(1) Therefore, holy brothers, partakers of a heavenly calling, consider Jesus (to be) the apostle and the high priest of our confession, (2) as he was faithful to the one who appointed him, as also (was) "Moses in all his household" (vid. Numbers 12.7). (3) For the latter has been deemed worthy of more glory than Moses, inasmuch as the one who constructs it has more glory than the house (itself); (4) for every house is built by someone, but he who has built everything (is) God. (5) Now, Moses (was) faithful as an attendant in all of his household as a witness of things which were (yet) to be reported. (6) But Christ (was faithful) as a son over his household; we are of his household, if we firmly retain our confidence and our pride in our expectations right to the end. 

A rest for the people of God (vv. 7-19). 

(7) Therefore, just as the Holy Spirit says, "Today, if you will hear his voice, (8) harden not your hearts, as in the provocation, according to the day of temptation in the wilderness, (9) when your fathers tempted me in the course of their scrutiny and saw my works (10) for forty years; therefore I was grieved with this generation and said, 'They always err in their hearts; but they have not known my ways;' (11) So I swore in my wrath, 'They shall not enter into my rest' " (Psalms 95. 7-9). 

(12) Beware, brothers, lest there should ever be in anyone of you a wicked heart lacking in faith, amounting to a withdrawal from the living God, (13) but keep on exhorting one another day by day, so long as it may be called 'Today', lest anyone of you should be hardened by the deceitfulness of sin; (14) for we have become partakers of Christ, if only we firmly retain our original confidence right to the end. (15) Whereby it is said, "Today, if you will hear his voice, harden not your hearts, as if (you were) in a (state of) rebellion" (Psalms 95, 7-8).

(16) For who rebelled when they heard? But did not all of those who went out of Egypt with Moses? (17) But with whom was he angry for forty years? (Was it) not with those who sinned, whose dead bodies fell in the wilderness? (18) But to whom "did he swear that they should not enter into his rest" (vid. Numbers 14. 22-23; Psalms 95.11), but those who were disobedient? (19) And we see that they were not able to enter in because of their lack of faith (see Numbers 14, 21-35, where God excludes a whole generation of Israelites from the promised land of Canaan). 

CHAPTER 4.

The danger of not entering into God's rest (vv. 1-10).

(1) Therefore, (since) the promise of entering into his rest (i.e. a rest that is spiritual and eternal) ever remains, let us be on our guard, lest anyone of you should seem to have fallen short (of it); (2) for we have also had the good news preached (to us), just as they had, but the word they heard did not benefit them, because it was not accompanied by faith in the (things) they heard. (3) For we who have believed do enter into that (place of) rest, just as he has said, "So I swore in my wrath, 'They shall not enter my rest' " (Psalms 95. 11), although the works were finished at the time of the foundation of the world, (4) for he said as follows somewhere around the seventh (day), "And God rested on the seventh day from all his works" (Genesis 2.2), (5) and again in this (above passage), "They shall not enter into my rest" (Psalms 95. 11). 

(6) So, since it remains that some should enter into it, and those to whom the good news was first announced did not enter in on account of their disobedience, (7) again he designates a certain day (as) "Today", saying, just as it has been said before after such a long time in David's (psalm), "Today, if you will hear his voice, harden not your hearts" (Psalms 95. 7-8); (8) "for if Joshua had led them into a place of rest" (vid. Deuteronomy 31. 7; Joshua 22. 4), he would not have spoken after that of another day. (9) So, there remains a Sabbath rest for the people of God; (10) for he who has entered into his rest has himself also rested from his works, "just as God (rested) from his own" (vid. Genesis 2.2). 

Exhortation to enter into God's rest (vv. 11-13).

(11) So, let us hasten to enter into that rest, lest anyone should fall through the same example of disobedience. (12) For "the word of God (is) alive and active, and sharper than any two-edged sword" (vid. Isaiah 49. 2), and penetrates even to the division of soul and spirit, and of joints and marrow, and (is) able to discern the thoughts and insights of the heart; (13) and there is no creature (that is) hidden from his sight, but all (things) are naked and exposed to the eyes of him to whom we must render an account.

Jesus, the great high-priest (vv. 14-16).

(14) So, since we have a great high-priest who has passed through the heavens, (that is,) Jesus, the Son of God, let us hold fast to our confession. (15) For we do not have a high-priest who cannot sympathise with our weaknesses, but (one) who has been tested in all (respects) in the same way (as us, but is) without sin. (16) Let us, therefore, draw near with confidence to the throne of grace, so that we may receive mercy and find grace to help us at the right time.    

CHAPTER 5.

Jesus is superior to human high-priests (vv. 1-10).

(1) For every high-priest selected from (among) men is appointed, on man's behalf, to take charge of the things relating to God, so that he may offer both gifts and sacrifices in order to atone for our sins. He is able to deal gently with those who are ignorant and have gone astray, since he himself is also beset with weakness, (3) "and for this reason he must make offerings as much for himself as for the people" (vid. Leviticus 9. 7; 16. 6). 

(4) Also no man takes this honour upon himself, but he is called by God, just like Aaron also (was). (5) So too, Christ did not glorify himself by becoming a high-priest, but he (i.e. God) said to him, "You are my Son; today I have become your Father" (Psalms 2.7); (6) as also in another (place) he says, "You (are) a priest forever, just like Melchizedek" (Psalms 110.4).

(7) In the days of his flesh (i.e. when he was alive), he (i.e. Jesus) offered up prayers and supplications, with loud crying and tears, to the one who was able to save him from death. (8) Although he was a Son, he learned obedience from the things he suffered, (9) and, having been made perfect, he became to all those who obey him the "source of eternal salvation" (vid. Isaiah 45. 17), (10) because he had been designated a high-priest "just like Melchizedek" (vid. Genesis 14. 18; Psalms 110. 4). 

Warning against immaturity (vv. 11-14).

(11) About him we have many words to say, and (they are) difficult to explain, since you have become (so) hard of hearing. (12) For, indeed, although you ought by this time to be teachers, you again have need of someone to teach you from the beginning the fundamental principles of God's sayings, and you have gone back to having a need for milk, not solid food. (13) For everyone who lives on milk (is) unacquainted with the word of righteousness, for he is a baby. (14) But solid food is for mature (people), (those) whose senses have been trained through practice to distinguish both right and wrong.

CHAPTER 6. 

The author explains his intention (v. 1-3).

(1) Therefore, leaving aside the doctrine of the first principles of Christ, let us press on to its completion, not laying a foundation again, (namely) a repentance from dead works, and faith in God, (2) the teaching on baptisms, the laying on of hands, the resurrection of the dead, and everlasting judgment. (3) And this we shall do, if only as God permits. 

Apostates are nailing the Son of God to the stake once again (vv. 4-8).

(4) For as regards those who were once enlightened, and who have tasted the heavenly free gift and have become partakers of the Holy Spirit (5) and who have tasted the fine word of God and the powers of the age to come, (6) but who have (now) fallen away, (it is) impossible to revive (them) again to repentance, seeing that they are themselves crucifying the son of God and exposing (him) to public shame. (7) For land, which has drunk the rain which often falls upon it, and (then) produces vegetation which is fit for those for whose sake it has also been cultivated, receives blessings from God; (8) "but, if it bears thorns and thistles, (it is) worthless and (comes) close to being cursed" (vid. Genesis 3. 17-18), and its end is to be burned. 

Words of hope and encouragement (vv. 9-20).

(9) But, concerning you, beloved, we are persuaded of better things and (things) that bring about salvation, even though we are speaking in this way; (10) for God (is) not (so) unjust as to forget your work and the love which you have showed for his name, in that you have ministered, and are continuing to minister, to the holy (ones). (11) But we desire each (one) of you to show the same eagerness towards the fulfilment of hope right up to the end, (12) so that you may not become sluggish, but (be) imitators of those who, through faith and steadfastness, inherit the promises.    

(13) For, when God made his promise to Abraham, since he was not able to swear by anyone greater, "he swore by himself" (Genesis 22. 16), (14) saying, "Assuredly, (in) blessing, I shall bless you, and (in) multiplying, I shall multiply your (offspring)" (Genesis 22. 17); (15) and thus, having shown great steadfastness, he (i.e. Abraham) obtained the promise. (16) For men swear by a greater one, and "in every dispute of theirs their oath (is) final for the purpose of confirmation" (vid. Exodus 22. 11); (17) in this (way), when God decided to demonstrate more abundantly to the heirs of the promise the immutability of his purpose, he guaranteed (it) with an oath, (18) so that through two immutable things  (i.e. God's promise and the oath joined to it), in which (it is) "impossible for God to lie" (vid. Numbers 23. 19; 2 Samuel 15. 29), we, who have fled for refuge, may have a great encouragement to take hold of the hope set before (us); (19) we have this (hope) as an anchor for the soul, both sure and firm, and "it enters into the inside of the curtain" (vid. Leviticus 16. 2-3, 12, 15), (20) where a certain forerunner has entered on our behalf, (namely) Jesus, who has become a high-priest "forever just like Melchizedek" (vid. Psalms 110. 4).  

CHAPTER 7.

Melchizedek (vv. 1-3).

(1) "For this Melchizedek, King of Salem, (and) priest of the Most High God, (was) the (one) who met Abraham as he was returning from the slaughter of the kings and blessed him, (2) and to him Abraham apportioned a tenth (part) of everything. His name is translated, in the first place, (as) King of Righteousness, and then also King of Salem, that is King of Peace" (Genesis 14, 17-20); (3) without father, without mother, without ancestry, having neither a beginning of days nor an end of life, but, having been made like the Son of God, "he remains a priest for all time" (vid. Psalms 110.4). 

Melchizedek accepted tithes from Abraham (vv. 4-10). 

(4) Now see how great this (man was,) to whom the patriarch Abraham gave a tenth of the spoils (i.e. the tithe paid to levitical priests). Indeed, those of the sons of Levi (i.e. the second son of Abraham's grandson, Jacob), who receive their priestly office, have a requirement to collect tithes from the people in accordance with the law, that is from their brothers, though these have come from the loins of Abraham; (6) but he who was not descended from them took his tithes from Abraham and blessed the one who had the promises. (7) Now, beyond all dispute, the lesser (one) is blessed by the greater. (8) And in the one case (it is) men who are dying who receive tithes, but in the other case (it is someone about whom) it is witnessed that he lives. (9) Now, so to speak, through Abraham even Levi, who receives tithes, has paid tithes, (10) for he was still in the loins of his forefather, when Melchizedek met him.  

From Levitical priesthood to the the priesthood of Melchizedek (vv. 11-14).

(11) So, if perfection occurred through the Levitical priesthood - for the people enacted laws on the basis of it - what further need (was there) for another priest to arise in accordance with the order of Melchizedek, and not in accordance with the order of Aaron? (12) For, since the priesthood is being changed, a change must also happen to the law. (13) For he, of whom these (things) are being said (i.e. Jesus), belongs to another tribe, from which no one has officiated at the altar; (14) for (it is) clear that our Lord has sprung from Judah (i.e. the third son of Jacob), a tribe about which Moses said nothing concerning priests. 

The abrogation of the old law (vv. 15-19).

(15) And this becomes yet more clearly evident, should there arise another priest just like Melchizedek, (16) who has become (one), not according to a law of physical requirement (i.e. one concerning his ancestry; for the law restricted the priesthood of Levi to his descendants), but in accordance with the power of an indestructible life, (17) for it is attested that, "You are a priest forever according to the order of Melchizedek" (Psalms 110. 4).

(18) For the setting aside of the foregoing regulation is happening on account of its weakness and ineffectiveness, (19) for the law made nothing perfect, but the introduction of the hope of (something) better (has done), and through this we are drawing near to God. 

Christ's priesthood is unchanging (vv. 20-25). 

(20) Also, to the extent that (this was) not (done) without an oath being sworn - for there are indeed those who have become priests without a sworn oath, but there is one with an oath sworn by the one who said respecting him, "The Lord swore and he will not change his mind: you (are) a priest forever" (Psalms 110. 4) - , (22) to that extent also has Jesus become the guarantee of a better covenant. (23) And the former priests (i.e. the Levitical priests) have become numerous, because they are prevented by death from continuing (in post); (24) but he, because he remains (alive) forever, keeps his priesthood unchangeable; (25) therefore, he is able to save completely those who draw near to God, because he is always alive to plead for them.  

The priesthood of the heavenly high-priest (vv. 26-28).

(26) For such a high-priest was also fitting for us: holy, guiltless, undefiled, separated from the sinners, and having become higher than the heavens; (27) he has no need on a daily basis, "like those high-priests, to offer up sacrifices, firstly for his own sins, (and) then for those of the people" (vid. Leviticus 9. 7; 16. 6, 15); for he did this once and for all when he offered himself up; (28) for the law appoints (as) high-priests men who have weakness, but the word of the sworn oath that (came) after the law (appoints) a son who has been made perfect forever.  

CHAPTER 8. 

The new priesthood and the new sanctuary (vv. 1-6). 

(1) Now, (this is) the main point of the things which we are saying: we do have a high-priest of such a kind as this, who "sat down at the right hand of the Majestic One in the heavens" (vid. Psalms 110.1), (2) a public servant of the holy (places) (i.e. the sanctuary) and "of the true tabernacle (i.e. tent) which God pitched" (vid. Numbers 24.6 lxx), not man. (3) For every high-priest is appointed to offer both gifts and sacrifices; therefore, (it is) necessary for this (one) to have something which he can also offer. (4) Now, if he were on earth, he would not be a priest, as there are men who offer gifts in accordance with the law; (5) these (men) are offering their service as a model and a shadow of the heavenly (things), just as Moses received this warning when he was about to complete (the construction of) the tabernacle: for he (i.e. God) said, "See that you make everything according to the pattern which was shown to you on the mountain (i.e. Sinai)" (Exodus 25. 40); (6) But now he (i.e. Jesus) has obtained a more excellent ministry, inasmuch as he is also the mediator of a better covenant, which has been established upon better promises. 

Christ is the mediator of a greater covenant (vv. 7-13).

(7) For, if that first (covenant) had been faultless, no one would have sought for a second (one); (8) for, finding fault with them, he says, "Behold, the days are coming, says the Lord, and I shall conclude a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah, (9) not in accordance with the covenant that I made with their forefathers on the day when I took them by the hand and led them out of the land of Egypt, because they did not continue in my covenant and I stopped caring about them, says the Lord. (10) For this (is) the covenant that I shall make with the house of Israel after those days, says the Lord, (and) I shall put laws into their mind and I shall write them on their hearts, and I will be their God and they will be my people. (11) And each man will by no means teach his fellow-citizen, nor each man his brother, saying, 'Know the Lord,' for they will all know me from the least (of them) to the greatest of them. (12) For I shall be merciful towards their misdeeds and I shall no longer be mindful of their sins" (Jeremiah 31. 31-34). 

(13) By his speaking of a new (covenant), he has made the first (one) obsolete, and that which is obsolete and growing old is close to  destruction. 

CHAPTER 9.

Sacred service in the earthly sanctuary (vv. 1-10).

(1) Now, even the first (covenant) used to have legal requirements for a sacred service and its earthly sanctuary. (2) For "there was a tabernacle prepared" (vid. Exodus 26. 1-30), and in its first (compartment were) "both the lampstand" (vid. Exodus 25. 31-40), and "the table, and the presentation of the loaves" (vid. 25. 23-30), and it is called the Holy (Place); (3) "but behind the second curtain (was) the tent (compartment) which is called the Holy of Holies" (vid. Exodus 26. 31-33), (4) "as it had a golden censer" (i.e. an altar bearing incense) (vid. Exodus 30. 1-6), and "the ark of the covenant (i.e. a chest made of acacia wood) overlaid on all sides with gold" (vid. Exodus 25. 10-16), in which (were) a "golden jar holding the manna" (vid. Exodus 16. 33), and "the rod of Aaron that budded" (vid. Numbers 17. 8-10), and "the tablets of the covenant" (vid. Exodus 25. 16; Deuteronomy 10. 3-5), (5) and "up above it (were) the glorious Cherubim (i.e. two winged figures made of gold) overshadowing the mercy-seat"(i.e. an atonement cover, a slab of gold fitting exactly over the ark of the covenant, on which the blood of the sin offering was sprinkled by the high-priest on the Day of Atonement) (vid. Exodus 25. 18-22); (but) now is not (the time) to speak of these (things) in detail. 

(6) Now, after these (things) have been prepared in this way, "the priests enter the first (compartment of) the tabernacle at all times in order to perform the sacred services" (vid. Numbers 18. 2-6), (7) "but the high-priest alone (enters) the second (compartment) once a year, not without blood, which he offers for himself and for the sins of the people committed in ignorance" (vid. Exodus 30. 10; Leviticus 16. 2, 14, 15); (8) the Holy Spirit makes it clear that the way (into) the holy place has not yet been revealed, while the first tent (compartment) still has its place (i.e. under the ceremonial arrangements of the old covenant the people did not have access to God), (9) and this (is) a parable for the present time, according to which both gifts and sacrifices are offered that (are) not able to make the (man) performing the sacred services perfect with regard to his conscience; (10) (these were) "only to do with food" (vid. Leviticus 11. 2) and drink and "various baptisms" (vid. Leviticus 11. 25, 15.18; Numbers 19. 13), legal requirements relating to the flesh, imposed until a time of reformation.   

Christ has entered the heavenly sanctuary (vv. 11-14).

(11) But Christ, having arrived, as a high priest of the good (things) that have come to pass (i.e. he had passed through the earthly compartment of the tabernacle), at the greater and more perfect (compartment of) the tabernacle not made with human hands, that is (it is) not of this creation, (12) nor through the blood of goats and calves but through his own blood, entered once and for all into the sanctuary (i.e. the celestial compartment of the tabernacle), having obtained eternal redemption. (13) "For if the blood of goats and bulls" (vid. Leviticus 16. 3, 14, 15) and "the ashes of a heifer" (vid. Numbers 19. 9, 17-19) sprinkled on those who have been defiled, may sanctify (them) with regard to the purity of the flesh, (14) by how much more will the blood of Christ cleanse our consciences from dead works, so that (we may render) sacred services to the living God.

Christ seals the new covenant with his blood (vv. 15-28).

(15) And for this reason he is the mediator of a new covenant, in order that, because a death has occurred for their redemption from the transgressions under the first covenant, those who have been called may receive the promise of the everlasting inheritance. (16) For where (there is) a covenant, necessity must bring on the death of the covenanter; (17) for a covenant (is) valid where (there are) dead bodies, since it is never in force while the (one) who made (it) lives. (18) Therefore, not even the first (covenant) has been dedicated without blood; (19) for, when every commandment had been declared by Moses to all the people according to the law, he took the blood of the calves and the goats together with water and "scarlet wool and hyssop" (vid. Leviticus 14. 4; Numbers 19. 6), and sprinkled the book itself and all the people, (20) saying, "This (is) the blood  of the covenant which God has commanded you (to keep)" (Exodus 24. 8); (21) "And he sprinkled the tabernacle and all the vessels of the sacred service with the blood in the same manner" (vid. Leviticus 8. 15, 19). (22) Moreover, according to the law, nearly everything is cleansed with blood, and, "apart from the shedding of blood, no remission takes place" (vid. Leviticus 17. 11). 

(23) So (it was) necessary that the tokens of the (things) in the heavens should be cleansed by these means, but the heavenly (things) themselves (must be cleansed) by better sacrifices than these (ones). (24) For Christ has not entered into holy (places) made with hands, representations of true (things that they are), but into heaven itself, now to appear in the presence of God on our behalf; (25) nor yet (is it right) that he should offer himself again and again, as the high-priest enters into the sanctuary year by year with blood not his own, (26) since (otherwise) he would have had to suffer often from the foundation of the world; but now, once and for all time at the end of the ages, he has been revealed to (effect) the annulment of sins by the sacrifice of himself. (27) And, inasmuch as "it is destined for men to die once" (vid. Genesis 3. 19), and after this (comes) judgment, (28) so also Christ, having been offered, once and for all time, to "bear the sins of many" (vid. Isaiah 53. 12), will appear a second time  without sin to those who are eagerly awaiting him in order to (ensure) their salvation (i.e. the 'Parousia' or the 'Second Coming of Christ').   

CHAPTER 10. 

Animal sacrifices are ineffectual (vv. 1-4).

(1) For, since the law (is but) a reflection of the good (things) that are coming, not the very substance of these things, they can never, by the same sacrifices that they offer continually year by year, make perfect those who come near (to worship); (2) for otherwise would they not have ceased to be offered, because, once they had been cleansed, those worshippers would have had no more consciousness of sins? (3) But in those (sacrifices) there is an annual reminder of sins, (4) for (is is) impossible that the blood of bulls and goats should take way sins.         

 The efficacy of Christ's sacrifice (vv. 5-18).

(5) Therefore, when he comes into the world, he says, "You did not want sacrifice and offering, but you did prepare a body for me; (6) you did not approve of whole burnt offerings and (sacrifices) for sin. (7) Then I said, 'Behold, I have come - in the scroll it has been written about me - to do your will, O God' " (Psalms 40. 6-8). (8) After previously saying that, "You did not want, nor did you approve of, sacrifices and offerings and (sacrifices) for sin" (Psalms 40. 6) that are offered according to the law, (9) "then" he said," 'Behold, I have come to do your will' " (Psalms 40. 7); he does away with what (is) first, so that he may establish what (is) second. (10) By this will we have been sanctified through the offering of the body of Jesus Christ once and for all time.

(11) Also "every priest stands day by day to render sacred services and to offer, on a regular basis, sacrifices" (vid. Exodus 29. 38) which can never take away sins. (12) But he, when he had offered one sacrifice for sins for all time, "sat down at the right (hand) of God" (vid. Psalms 110. 1), (13) from then on waiting "until his enemies should be made a footstool for his feet" (vid. Psalms 110. 1). (14) For (it is) by this one offering that he had made those who are being sanctified perfect for all time. 

(15) The Holy Spirit also bears witness to us, for after it has said, (16) " 'This (is) the covenant that I shall make with them after those days', the Lord says, 'I shall put my laws in their hearts and I shall write them down in their minds' (Jeremiah 31. 33), (17) and 'I shall not remember their sins and their iniquities any more' " (Jeremiah 31. 34); (18) now, where (there is) remission of these, (there is) no longer an offering for sin.

An exhortation to a new way of entry into the sanctuary (vv. 19-25).

(19) So, brothers, since, through the blood of Jesus, we have the confidence to enter the sanctuary (20) which he opened up for us (as) a new and living way through the curtain, that is (to say) his flesh, (21) and, (since we have) a great priest over the house of God, (22) let us draw near with a true heart in the fulness of faith, with our hearts "having been sprinkled (to cleanse us) from a guilty conscience" (vid. Ezekiel 36. 25) and our bodies washed with pure water; (23) let us hold fast to the confession of faith without wavering, for he who promised (is) faithful. (24) And let us consider (how) to incite one another to love and good works, (25) not forsaking our own gathering together, as the custom (is) for some, but exhorting one another, and (all) the more so as you behold the day approaching (i.e. the day of the 'parousia').  

Warning against sin (vv. 26-31).

(26) For if we sin wilfully, after receiving the knowledge of the truth, (there is) no longer any sacrifice for sins left, (27) but (there is) a certain fearful expectation of judgment and "a fierceness of fire (i.e. fire is the traditional weapon which God uses to express his anger) which is going to consume our adversaries" (vid. Isaiah 26. 11). (28) Any (man) who has disregarded the law of Moses "dies without mercy on the testimony of two or three" (vid. Deuteronomy 17. 6; 19. 15). (29) How much worse a punishment will he be deemed worthy of who has trampled on the Son of God, and who has regarded (as) profane "the blood of the covenant" (vid. Exodus 24. 16) by which he was sanctified, and has insulted the Spirit of grace. (30) For we know (the one) who said, "Vengeance is mine; I will repay" (Deuteronomy 32. 35); and again, "The Lord will judge his people" (Deuteronomy 32. 36; Psalms 135. 14); (31) (It is) a fearful (thing) to fall into the hands of the living God.

Reasons to persevere (vv. 32-39).

(32) But remember those former days, during which, after you were enlightened, you endured a great struggle with (all) its sufferings, sometimes being publicly exposed both to reproaches and to abuse as in a theatre, and, at other times, having become sharers with those who were having such an experience; (34) for you both expressed sympathy for those in chains (i.e. in prison), and joyfully accepted the plundering of your possessions, knowing that you, yourselves, have a better and abiding property (i.e. in the heavens).

(35) So, do not lose your confidence, which brings (so) great a reward, (36) for you have need of perseverance, so that, when you have done the will of God, you may receive (the fulfilment of) the promise; (37) for yet, "in a very little while, he who is coming will have come, and will not tarry; (38) but my righteous one will live by faith, and, if ever he should shrink back, my soul will take no delight in him" (Habbakuk 2. 3-4 lxx). (39) But we are not (one of those) who shrink back to destruction, but (one of those who have) faith in the preservation of (one's) soul.      

CHAPTER 11. 

Definition of faith (vv. 1-2).

(1) Now, faith is the assured expectation of (things) that are hoped for, the convinced belief in things that are not seen; (2) for by this (means) our elders obtained their testimony. 

Examples of faith (vv. 3-40). 

(3) By faith, we understand that "the universe has been framed by the word of God, so that what is seen has been made from (things) that are not visible" (vid. Genesis 1.1; Psalms 33. 6, 9). 

(4) By faith "Abel offered God a better sacrifice than Cain" (vid. Genesis 4, 3-10), by which he was confirmed to be righteous, with God testifying (to this) by his gifts, and, though he died, he still speaks through his (faith). 

(5) By faith "Enoch was transferred (i.e. he was taken from this life), so that he would not see death, and he was not to be found because God had transferred him" (vid. Genesis 5. 24; Sirach 44. 16; Enoch 70. 1-4; Wisdom 4.10); for before his transference, he received testimony that he was well-pleasing to God. (6) Now, without faith, (it is) impossible to be well-pleasing (to him), for he who comes to God must believe that he exists, and that he becomes the rewarder of those who seek him.

(7) By faith Noah, "having been divinely warned about things not yet seen, became anxious and constructed an ark for the saving of his household" (vid. Genesis 6. 13-22; 7.1), by which (faith) he put the world under sentence, and became heir to the righteousness that goes with faith. 

(8) "By faith, Abraham, when called, agreed to go out to a place which he was going to receive as an inheritance, and he went out, not knowing where he was going" (vid. Genesis 12. 1-5). (9) "By faith he migrated to the land of the promise as (one) not his own, dwelling in tents with Isaac and Jacob, the heirs with (him) of the same promise" (vid. Genesis 23. 4; 26.3; 35. 12. 27). (10) For he was expecting the city that had the foundations, of which God (was) the architect and builder. 

(11) By faith even "Sarah herself received the power to bear children, even when she was past the appointed age limit" (vid. Genesis 17. 19; 18. 11-14; 21. 2), since she regarded the (one) who made the promise as faithful; (12) because of this also, from one (man) there were born children, and these, (although coming from one) on the verge of death (i.e. because he was a hundred years old) (were) "as innumerable in their multitude as the stars of heaven and the (grains of) sand beside the sea shore" (vid. Genesis 15. 5-6; 22.17; 32. 12; Deuteronomy 1. 10; 10. 22; Daniel 3. 36 lxx; Sirach 44. 22).    

(13) All these (people) died in the faith without having received (the fulfilment of) the promises, but they had seen them from afar and welcomed (them), and they publicly declared that "they were strangers and resident aliens in the land" (vid. Genesis 23. 4; 47. 9; 1 Chronicles 29. 15; Psalms 39.12); (14) for those who say such (things) reveal that they are seeking a country of their own. (15) And, if indeed they had in mind that (country) from which they had set out, they would have had time to return; (16) but now they are striving for a better (place), that is a heavenly (one). For this reason, "God is not ashamed to be called their God" (vid. Exodus 3. 6, 15; 4. 5), for he has prepared a city for them.   

(17) "By faith Abraham, when put to the test, had offered up Isaac, and (the man) who had received the promises offered up his only-begotten (son)" (vid. Genesis 17. 1-10), (18) (even he) to whom it had been said that " 'From Isaac will your offspring be summoned' " (Genesis 21. 12), (19) as he reckoned that God (was) even able to raise (him) from the dead; so, figuratively speaking (i.e. when the substitute ram was provided), he also did get him back (from the dead).   

(20) "By faith also Isaac blessed Jacob and Esau concerning (things) to come" (vid. Genesis. 27. 29: 39-40).  

(21) By faith "Jacob, as he was dying, blessed each of the sons of Joseph" (vid. Genesis 48. 15-16), "bowing low in reverence (while leaning) on the top of his staff" (Genesis 47. 31 lxx). 

(22) "By faith Joseph, when the end of his life was near, made mention of the exodus of the sons of Israel, and gave instructions concerning his bones" (vid. Genesis 50. 24-25; Exodus 13. 19). 

(23) By faith "Moses, after he was born, was hidden for three months by his parents" (vid. Exodus 2.2), because they saw that (he was) a very fine boy and "they did not fear the King's commandment" (i.e. that all male Israelite children should be drowned in the Nile at birth) (vid. Exodus 1.22). (24) "By faith Moses, when he was grown up, refused to be called the son of Pharoah's daughter" (vid. Exodus 2. 10-12), (25) choosing to suffer ill-treatment with the people of God rather than to have the transitory enjoyment of sin, (26) because he considered humiliation (for the sake of) the Anointed (i.e. Christ, the future Messiah) (to be) riches greater than the treasures of Egypt, for he had his eyes fixed on the reward. (27) By faith "he left Egypt" (vid. Exodus 2. 15; 12. 51), not fearing the wrath of the king, for he remained steadfast, as if he saw the (one who is) invisible (i.e. God). (28) "By faith he kept the Passover and the sprinkling of the blood, so that the destroyer might not touch their firstborn" (vid. Exodus 12. 21-30). 

(29) "By faith they passed through the Red Sea, as though (they were) on dry land, but, when the Egyptians made their attempt (at it), they were drowned" (vid. Exodus 14. 21-31). 

(30) "By faith the walls of Jericho fell down after they had been encircled for seven days" (vid. Joshua 6. 12-21). (31) "By faith the harlot Rahab did not perish with those who were disobedient, because she received the spies in a peaceable manner" (vid. Joshua 2. 11-12; 6. 21-25). 

(32) And what more shall I say? For time will fail me if I go on to tell about Gideon, Barak, Samson, Jephthah, both David and Samuel, and the prophets, (33) who through faith conquered kingdoms, practised righteousness, obtained promises, and "shut the mouths of lions" (vid. Judges 14. 6-7; 1 Samuel 17. 34-36; Daniel 6. 1-27), (34) "quenched the force of fire" (vid. Daniel 3. 23-25), escaped the edge of the sword, were made strong from (a state of) weakness, became mighty in war, (and) turned armies of foreigners to flight; (35) "women got back their dead by means of resurrection" (vid. 1Kings 17. 17-24; 2 Kings 4. 25-37); but "other (men) were tortured, not accepting their deliverance, so that they might attain a better resurrection" (vid. 2 Maccabees 6. 18 - 7. 42); (36) "and others received their trial by mockery and scourgings, and even by chains and imprisonment" (vid. 1 Kings 22. 26-27; 2 Chronicles 18. 25-26; Jeremiah 20. 2; 37. 15; 38. 6); (37) "they were stoned" (vid. 2 Chronicles 24. 21), they were tried, "they were sawn apart" (vid. Ascension of Isaiah 5. 11-14), they died through the slaughter of the sword, they went about in sheepskins, and in goat-skins, while they were in need, in distress (and) ill-treated, (38) and the world was not worthy of them, wandering (as they were) in deserts, and mountains, and caves, and the openings of the earth.  

(39) And (yet) all of these (men), although they had received the testimony through their faith, did not obtain the promise, (40) as God had foreseen something better for us, so that they might not be made perfect apart from us. 

CHAPTER 12.

Jesus, the perfecter of our faith (vv. 1-3).  

(1) So then, because we also have so great a cloud of witnesses surrounding us, let us lay aside every weight and the sin that so easily entangles (us) and let us run with endurance the race that lies before us, (2) as we look to Jesus, the author and perfecter of our faith, who, for the joy that was set before him, endured the cross, scorning (its shame), and has sat down at the right (hand) of the throne of God. (3) For think of the (one) (i.e. Jesus) who has endured such hostility from sinners against their own (interests), so that you may not get tired and lose heart. 

Do not disregard the Lord's discipline (vv. 4-11).

(4) In your struggle against sin, you have not yet taken your resistance to the point of (shedding) your blood, (5) and you have forgotten the exhortation that addressed you as sons: " 'My son, do not belittle the Lord's discipline, nor give up when you are reproved by him; (6) for (the one,) whom the Lord loves, he disciplines, and he chastises every son whom he acknowledges' " (Proverbs 3. 11-12).

(7) You persevere for the sake of discipline; "God treats you as sons; for what son (is he) whom a father does not discipline" (vid. Deuteronomy 8.5; 2 Samuel 7. 14)? (8) But, if you are without the discipline of which you have all become partakers, then you are bastards, not sons. (9) Now, we used to have fathers who were of our flesh to chasten (us), and we used to show (them) respect; shall we not submit ourselves much more (readily) "to the father of our spiritual life" (vid. Numbers 16. 22; 27. 16)? For they used to discipline (us) for a few days according to what seemed good to them, but he (does so) for our benefit, so that we may have a share of his holiness. (11) Now, for the present, all discipline seems to be not joyous but grievous; yet afterwards it yields the peaceable fruit of righteousness to those who have undergone (it).  

Make your crooked paths straight (vv. 12-13).

(12) Therefore, "straighten up your hands that are hanging down and your weakened knees" (vid. Isaiah 35. 3; Sirach 25. 23), (13) and "make straight the paths for your feet" (vid. Proverbs 4. 26 lxx), so that what (is) lame may not be put out of joint, but that it may be healed.

Warning against rejecting God's grace (vv. 14-17).

(14) "Pursue peace with all (men)" (vid. Psalms 13. 14) and the holiness, without which no one will see the Lord, (15) taking care that no one should be excluded from the grace of God, and "that no root of bitterness should spring up and cause trouble" (vid. Deuteronomy 29. 17 lxx), and that many (people) may (not) be defiled by it, (16) (and that there may be) no fornicator or profane (person), such as "Esau, who sold his birthright for a single meal" (vid. Genesis 25. 33-34). (17) "For you know that afterwards, when he wanted to inherit the blessing (i.e. the right of primogeniture), he was rejected, for, although he sought for it with tears (in his eyes), he could find no place for repentance" (i.e. Esau only regretted his loss; he did not repent of his sin) (vid. Genesis 27. 30-40). 

Approaching the heavenly Jerusalem (vv. 18-29). 

(18) "For you have not come to (a place) that can be touched (i.e. somewhere like Mount Sinai), and which has been set alight with fire, and to darkness and thick gloom and tempest, (19) (and) to the blast of a trumpet, and to the sound of words, and those hearing (it) begged that its message should not be addressed to them" (i.e. they believed that those who heard the voice of God would die) (vid. Exodus 19. 16-22; 20. 18-21; Deuteronomy 4. 11-12; 5. 22-27). (20) for they could not bear the commandment that, " 'If even an animal should touch the mountain, it should be stoned' " (vid. Exodus 19. 12-13); (21) and the sight was so terrifying that Moses said," 'I am full of fear" (Deuteronomy 9. 19) and trembling.' (22) But you have come to Mount Zion and to the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem and its myriad of angels in their festal gathering, (23) and to the assembly of the firstborn (i.e. the first of the early believers in Jesus to be redeemed), whose names have been written in the heavens, and "to God, the judge of all (men)" (vid. Genesis 18. 25; Psalms 50. 6), and to the spirits of the just who have been made perfect, (24) and to Jesus, the mediator of a new covenant, and to the blood of the sprinkling that speaks better "than that of Abel" (i.e. Abel's blood cried out for justice and retribution, whereas the blood shed by Jesus called for forgiveness) (vid. Genesis 4. 10).   

(25) See that you do not refuse (to listen to) the (one) who is speaking; for if those, who refused (to listen  to) the (one) giving divine warning on the earth, did not escape, (how) much more (shall) we (not escape) who turn away from him (who speaks) from the heavens; (26) "Then, his voice shook the earth" (vid. Exodus 19.18; Judges 5. 4: Psalms 68. 8), but now he has promised, saying " 'Yet once more will I set not only the earth in motion, but the heavens also.' " (vid. Haggai 2. 6) (27) Now, the (expression) 'Yet once more' signifies the removal of the (things) being shaken as things that have been created, in order that the (things) not being shaken may remain. (28) Therefore, as we are receiving a kingdom that cannot be shaken, may we have grace through which we can render sacred service to God in an acceptable manner with awe and reverence, (29) for "our God is indeed a consuming fire" (vid. Deuteronomy 4. 24; 9. 3; Isaiah 33. 14).  

CHAPTER 13.

Final recommendations (vv. 1-6).

(1) Let your brotherly love continue. (2) Do not forget (to give) hospitality, for by (doing) this "some unknowingly entertained angels" (vid. Genesis 18. 1-8; 19. 1-3). (3) Remember those who are in prison, as if you have been imprisoned with (them), (and) those who are ill-treated, as you yourselves are also in a body. (4) (Let) marriage (be) held in honour among everyone, and (let) the marriage-bed (be) undefiled, for God will judge fornicators and adulterers. (5) (Let your) way of life (be free of) the love of money; be content with your present (possessions); for he (i.e. God) himself has said, " 'I shall by no means abandon you, nor forsake you in any way' " (vid. Deuteronomy 31. 6); (6) so that we may be full of courage and say, " 'The Lord is my helper; I will not be afraid; what can man do to me' " (Psalms 31. 6)?

Faithfulness (vv. 7-16).

(7) Remember your leaders who spoke the word of God to you, and, as you consider the result of their conduct, imitate their faith. 

(8) Jesus Christ (is) the same yesterday (and) today and forever. 

(9) Do not be carried away by various and strange teachings; for (it is) good that the heart may be strengthened by grace, not by (ceremonial) foods, from which those who have so occupied themselves have not benefited. 

(10) We have an altar, from which those who render sacred service in the (holy) tabernacle have no right to eat. (11) "For the bodies of those animals, whose blood is brought into the sanctuary by the high-priest (as an offering) for sin, is consumed by fire outside the camp" (vid. Leviticus 16. 27); (12) so, Jesus Christ also, that he might sanctify the people with his own blood, suffered outside the gate (i.e, Golgotha was outside the boundary of the city of Jerusalem). (13) Let us, therefore, go forth to him outside the camp (i.e. a call to separate from Judaism), and bear his humiliation, (14) for here we do not have a city that will endure, but we are seeking the (one) which is to come; (15) Through him (i.e. Jesus) let us continually offer up "a sacrifice of praise to God" (vid. 2 Chronicles 39. 31; Psalms 50. 14, 23), that is, the "fruit of lips" (vid. Hosea 14. 2) that confess his name. (16) But do not forget (to do) good deeds and to share (things with others), for God is well-pleased with such sacrifices (as these).    

Obedience to religious leaders (vv. 17-19). 

(17) Obey those who are leading you and submit (to them), "for they themselves are keeping watch over your souls" (vid. Isaiah 62. 6; Ezekiel 3. 17), as (those) who will render an account (of them), that they may do this with joy, and not with groans, for this (would be) damaging for you. 

(18) Pray for us, for we are convinced that we have a good conscience, as we wish to conduct ourselves honestly in all (matters). (19) But I especially urge (you) to do this, so that I may be restored to you more quickly. 

News, good wishes, and greetings (vv. 20-25).

(20) Now, may the God of peace "who brought up from the dead the great shepherd of the sheep" (vid. Isaiah 63. 11) "with the blood of an everlasting covenant" (vid. Zechariah 9. 11; Isaiah 5. 3, Jeremiah 32. 40; Ezekiel 37. 26), (that is,) our Lord Jesus, (21) equip you with every good (thing) to do his will, working in you what is pleasing in his sight, to whom (be) the glory forever and ever. Amen. 

(22) Now, I exhort you, brothers, to pay patient attention to this word of encouragement, for indeed I have written to you briefly. (23) Be aware that our brother Timothy (has been) released, and, if he comes shortly, I shall see you together with him.  

(24) Give my greetings to all those who are leading you and all of the holy ones. Those (who are) from Italy send you their greetings.  

(25) Grace (be) with you all.