THE GODS OF GREECE AND ROME : THE TWELVE OLYMPIANS

Introduction.

The mythology and literature of the Ancient Greeks contain many stories about the gods. The Greeks were polytheists, that is, they believed in many gods. They also adopted an anthromorphic approach to their gods, and built temples, in which they placed statues of the gods in human form. As a result Greeks felt that the gods were like them, and shared the same attributes and desires as humans, although on a grander scale of course. As the influence of Greek culture spread to Rome, the Romans began to identify their own native Italian deities with the gods of the Greeks. In classical myth, the twelve most important gods, known collectively as the 'Hellenic Pantheon', led by the 'King' or 'Father' of the gods, inhabited the peaks of Mount Olympus, part of a mountain range in Greece, which separates Macedonia and Thessaly. Its height is about 9,600 feet and it is therefore covered with perpetual snow. The Romans came to equate the twelve deities of the Pantheon with the twelve 'Consenting Gods', which they had themselves inherited from the Etruscans - also six male gods and six female ones - , who assisted Jupiter in coming to his decisions. In the sections below Sabidius gives a brief portrait of each of these 'Twelve Olympians', together with brief information as to their parentage and children, their main attributes, and information about how they were worshipped. In each case the relevant Greek name is shown in brackets.

1.  Jupiter (Zeus).  Jupiter, the King of the Gods and ruler of both the Heaven and Earth was the son of Saturn (Cronus) and Rhea. His name 'Jupiter' really means 'Sky-Father'. He married his sister Juno, by whom he had three children, but he had many other children by goddesses and mortal women. He was worshipped as the god of rain, storms, thunder and lightning, and when launching his thunderbolts he was known as 'Jupiter Tonans' or 'Fulminator', i.e. 'The Thunderer'. Another of his epithets was 'Jupiter Pluvius', i.e. the Rain-maker'. Armed with thunder and lightning, he shakes his 'aegis' (or shield) which produces storms and tempests. The Romans believed that Jupiter was omniscient and omnipotent, that is, he could both foresee the future and determine the course of human affairs. He revealed the future to men through signs in the heavens and through the flights of birds, which were carefully interpreted by the Roman college of priests, known as 'augurs'. He was also regarded as the guardian of law and the protector of justice and virtue, and the punishment of perjurors was one of his particular functions. In Rome he was worshipped as 'Jupiter Optimus Maximus' ('the Best and the Greatest') in his temple on the top of the lofty Capitoline Hill, which he shared with Juno and Minerva, and in which his statue was placed. As the lord of heaven he was also the prince of light, and therefore the colour white was sacred to him, and only white animals were sacrificed to him on the Capitol. His priest, known as the 'Flamen Dialis' always wore a white cap, and the consuls were always attired in white when they performed sacrifices to him on the Capitol on the first day of the year when they entered into their office. He was also a warrior god, whose aid was always invoked by the Romans before any military campaign and a portion of the spoils of war was always shared with him at its conclusion. The annual Roman games, the 'Ludi Romani', were celebrated in his honour.

2.  Juno (Hera).  Juno, the Queen of the Heavens, was Jupiter's consort, as well as his sister, being the daughter of Saturn. By Jupiter she was the mother of Vulcan, Mars and a daughter Juventas (or Hebe). Juno's particular function was to watch over the female sex; on their birthdays Roman women were expected to offer her sacrifices, and on 1st March all women took part in the great festival in her honour, known as the Matronalia. The month of June, originally Junonis, was named in her honour, and was considered the most favourable time for getting married and for conception. Juno was the goddess of marriage, and presided over both child-birth and newborn children, under the name of 'Lucina'. Juno was also given the surname 'Moneta' (i.e. 'She who warns'), a title bestowed upon her because the cackling of her sacred geese had given the warning when the Gauls were attacking Rome in 390 B.C. and thus saved the Capitol. As a result a temple dedicated to Juno Moneta was founded on the Capitoline Hill, and in the Third Century this temple became the financial centre at which coins were struck. Indeed, it is from her name 'Moneta' that our words 'money' and 'mint' are formed. Thus Juno acquired the function of protectress of the state's finances.  In Homer's 'Iliad', as Hera, she is particularly known for her hostility towards Troy during the ten-year Trojan war, and then, as Juno, in Virgil's 'Aeneid' for her malevolence towards Aeneas and his followers as they try to settle in Italy. Only right at the end of Book Twelve does Jupiter finally prevail upon her to drop her antagonism to Aeneas, but then on the strict understanding that he and his followers cease to describe themselves as Trojans. According to classical myth, Juno's long-standing hatred of Troy was the consequence of the 'Judgment of Paris', when Paris, the son of Priam, King of Troy, awarded the golden apple marked 'For the fairest' to Venus, rather than to her or Minerva. This resentment towards both Troy and Aeneas is perhaps the best example of the spiteful nature for which Juno or Hera was particularly renowned in classical literature.

3.  Neptune (Poseidon).  Neptune was the brother of Jupiter, and, hence, also the son of Saturn and Rhea. As lord of the sea, he is usually portrayed carrying a trident, the weapon particularly favoured by tunny-fishers, the most important Mediterranean fishermen. He married Amphitrite, who was herself a sea-nymph, and by whom he had a son Triton. In the Homeric poems Poseidon is portrayed as being equal to Zeus in dignity, but less powerful. Although he was one of the Olympians, he was also represented as living in a palace at the bottom of the sea near Aegae in Euboea, where he kept horses with brazen hooves and golden manes, drawn by which he rides his chariot over the waves of the sea, which become calm as he approaches. He was also portrayed as the god and controller of horses, and, in consequence, is also often shown as holding a horse-whip as well as a trident. In this role as god of horses, he was believed to have taught men the art of managing horses by the bridle, and to have been the originator of horse races. In Greece he may, in earlier centuries, have even been worshipped in the form of a horse. In Rome his temple stood in the Campus Martius. In Greek legend he is said to have built the walls of Troy for Laomedon, but later he sided with the Greeks against the Trojans. In Homer's 'Odyssey' he is hostile to Ulysses, whom, by means of storms, he continually prevents from returning home as a consequence of his blinding of the Cyclops Polyphemus, who was identified as the son of Poseidon by another nymph named Thoosa. 

4.  Ceres (Demeter).  Also the daughter of Saturn and Rhea, Ceres was the goddess of corn and agriculture. She is best known as the mother of Proserpina (Persephone in Greek), her daughter by her brother, Jupiter, who when gathering flowers in a meadow near Enna in Sicily was carried off to the Underworld by her uncle Pluto (Hades) to be queen of the Underworld. Ceres searched for her daughter everywhere, but without success, and in consequence forgot to look after the crops. Because the earth became barren, Jupiter sent Mercury into the lower world to collect Proserpina. Pluto agreed to her return on condition that she ate nothing in the Underworld, but, in her excitement at the prospect of her return, Proserpina ate a pomegranite seed, and was therefore compelled to spend six (or three) months of the year with Pluto in the Underworld. Nevertheless, the earth became fertile again. The meaning of the legend is clear: the Proserpina who has to spend a proportion of her time in the underworld is the seed-corn, which remains concealed in the ground for part of the year; the Proserpina who then returns to her mother Ceres is the corn which rises from the ground to nourish both men and animals. In Attica Demeter was worshipped with great splendour, and the Athenians maintained that agriculture had been invented in their country. Every year the famous Eleusinian mysteries were celebrated in honour of Demeter and her daughter. In Rome the worship of Demeter had been introduced into the city in 493 B.C. when during a famine the Sibylline Books had enjoined the building of a temple to Ceres and Proserpina below the Aventine Hill, and the worship of Ceres took over all the attributes and legends associated with Demeter. During the remainder of the republican period decrees of the Senate were deposited in the temple of Ceres for inspection by the tribunes of the people. In statues Ceres is usually shown holding the ears of corn which feature so largely in the Demeter-Eleusis legends. Her festival, the Cerealia, was held in Rome annually on 19th April, and we derive our word 'cereal' directly from her name.  

5.  Vesta (Hestia).  According to legend Vesta was the eldest child of Saturn and Rhea. She swore  to remain a virgin, and, as a maiden divinity, she was the goddess of the hearth, or, more accurately of the fire that burns on the hearth. As the hearth (the 'focus') was seen as the centre of domestic life, she was also therefore the goddess of domestic life. Tending the hearth was considered to be the function of unmarried daughters. Vesta was also the goddess of the sacred fire of the altar, and so the first part of every sacrifice was presented to her. A town or a city was considered by the Greeks to be an extended family and had its sacred fire in its town-hall, known as the 'prytaneum'. When a Greek town sent out a party to found a colony elsewhere, the emigrants took some of this fire from their mother town to burn on the hearth of their new home. As goddess of the hearth, Vesta was inseparably connected with the household gods, the 'Penates', associated with the 'penus' or store-cupboard, in which the provisions of the house were kept. According to legend, Aeneas brought the eternal fire of Vesta, together with the Penates, from  Troy. In Rome respect for Vesta was demonstrated by the custody of the undying fire by the six Vestal Virgins, all women from noble families, who, under the direction of the chief priest, the 'Pontifex Maximus', tended the flames in her temple. The Temple of Vesta, which was round in imitation of the round huts of the Latins, was placed in the Forum, where a remnant of it can still be seen. The Vestals were a central part of the Roman state cult, and their lives were regulated by very strict taboos. The feast of Vesta was held in Rome in mid-June, when her temple was cleansed with water from a sacred spring, and when the 'penus' of each house was traditionally renewed. 

6.  Minerva (Pallas Athena).  Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, was the daughter of Jupiter and the sea-nymph Metis. Jupiter swallowed Metis whole to prevent her from bearing a son that might threaten to depose him, but, sometime later he had a severe headache, which he asked his son Vulcan to relieve by striking his head with an axe. This Vulcan did, and Minerva then sprang forth, in full armour, from her father's head. She was the goddess of wisdom, and of the arts and handicrafts, and indeed of every kind of intellectual activity, and in her statues she is sometimes portrayed holding an owl, which symbolised wisdom. Another of her functions was to guide men in the dangers of war, and so she was frequently represented wearing armour, including a helmet and shield. As an Italian deity, her worship is supposed to have been introduced into Rome by the second king, Numa Pompilius (715-673 B.C.), and in 509 B.C. the great temple on the Capitoline Hill dedicated to the triad of Jupito, Juno and Minerva was completed. Hence, it is clear that Minerva was one of the foremost deities of the Romans. The Roman festival of Minerva, called the Quinquatrus, lasted for five days from 19th to 23rd March. As Athena, she was the patron deity of Athens, and her temple, the Parthenon, inside which was her statue, is the most famous temple in the world.

7.  Venus (Aphrodite).  Venus, the goddess of beauty and love, was the daughter of Jupiter and Dione, and was reputed to have been born in the foam of the sea off the island of Cyprus. She was married to her half-brother Vulcan, but also loved Mars, and a human, Anchises, to whom she bore Aeneas, the Trojan hero and the legendary ancestor of the Roman race. She far surpassed all the other goddesses in physical beauty and hence received the prize of the golden apple in the 'Judgement of Paris'. In the Trojan War she gives her support to the Trojans and saves the life of Paris when he is about to be killed by Menelaus, the estranged husband of Helen, whom Paris has abducted. In Virgil's 'Aeneid' she gives help and advice to her son Aeneas during his long travels to Italy. She also falls in love with a youth, Adonis, and was overcome with grief when he was killed during a boar-hunt. In her statues she was usually portrayed together with her son Cupid (Eros), with his famous 'darts', which he carries in a golden quiver, and which, when released, would infect with overwhelming desire any man or god whom they struck. Venus, herself, had the power of granting beauty and irresistible charms to others, and whoever wore her magic girdle became an object of love and desire to others. In Greece, the islands of Cyprus and Cytherea were the principal places where she was worshipped. In Rome her worship was introduced from Sicily at the beginning of the Second Punic war towards the end of the Third Century B.C. Later, her worship was promoted by Julius Caesar, who traced his own descent from her through Aeneas' son, Julus, and he erected a splendid temple in her honour. The Emperor Hadrian built an even more majestic temple in her name in 135 A.D.

8.  Apollo.  He was the son of Jupiter and Latona (Leto) and was born, together with his twin-sister Diana (Artemis), on the Greek island of Delos, to which Leto had fled to escape the jealousy of Hera. In his case the name Apollo was used by both the Greeks and the Romans, but he is often known as 'Phoebus', a Greek epithet meaning 'the bright' or 'the pure'. Of all the deities associated with Greece and Rome, Apollo is perhaps the most attractive, both in appearance and character. As god of all brightness and light, it was natural that he should be closely associated with the Sun, and he was believed to drive his four-horsed chariot (or quadriga) across the sky each morning. He was held to perform functions in relation to both music and medicine. However, his most important attribute was his close interest in all matters affecting law and order, as well as in the intellectual, social and moral spheres. He was thought to preside over public actions, such as the founding of cities, the drawing up of codes of law, and the constitutions of states. A particular function of Apollo was his role in punishing homicide, the ultimate violation of the social order, and, as the divine archer, he was seen to punish murderers with his avenging  arrows. These are also in evidence at the beginning of the 'Iiad', when, enraged by their treatment of his priest Chryses and the abduction of his daughter Chryseis, his arrows create a terrible pestilence in the Greeks' camp. However, Apollo is perhaps best known for his function as god of prophecy, and was understood to exercise many of his legislative and ritual functions by means of his oracles, the most famous of which, in historical times, was at Delphi in central Greece, where his priestess, known as the 'Pythoness', sat on a tripod over a cleft in the rock from which issued an intoxicating vapour, and then gave opaque responses to questions put to her, which were then interpreted by priests to those who had come to consult the god. This advice was usually ambiguous, but was sometimes good and politically significant. Apollo's most important connection with Rome came from the city's relative proximity to the Greek colony of Cumae on the northern tip of the Bay of Naples. Cumae was renowned for its worship of Apollo, and it was also the seat of another of his prophetesses, called the 'Sybil'. This Sybil was to be immortalised by Virgil in the Sixth Book of his 'Aeneid', in which she introduces Aeneas to the Underworld, where he meets the shades of many heroes of the Roman future. In the Sixth Century B.C., the Sybil was reputed to have sold the three volumes of the Sibylline Books to King Tarquinius Priscus. These oracular books were kept in the Capitol by a college of fifteen priests, who were consulted only on the orders of the Senate. A temple of Apollo was consecrated in Rome as early as 432 B.C. and in 212 B.C. annual games, the 'Ludi Apollinari' were instituted in his honour. Apollo's status in Rome was greatly enhanced by the devotion of the Emperor Augustus, who erected magnificent temples to the god on the Palatine Hill in Rome, and at Actium in Greece to celebrate his victory over Antony and Cleopatra in 31 B.C.

9.  Diana (Artemis).   Diana, the daughter of Jupiter and Latona (Leto), and twin-sister of Apollo, was the goddess of hunting and the patroness of chastity, which she guarded with determination. When the hunter Actaeon saw her bathing naked in a pool, she turned him into a stag, whereupon he was killed by his own hounds. Diana was also worshipped in relation to childbirth. Just as her brother Apollo was linked with the Sun, Diana was associated with the Moon, and sometimes identified with the lunar goddess Selene. In statues she is usually portrayed with a quiver and arrows in view of her function as a huntress, and her character was often seen as a vengeful one. When, Niobe, the daughter of Tantalus, boasted that she had seven children, whereas Latona had only two, Diana and her brother punished her by shooting all her children with their arrows.  In the Asian city of Ephesus, she was worshipped as a universal mother figure until well into the Christian era. Indeed, as recorded in 'The Acts of the Apostles', when St. Paul visits Ephesus, he is met with the universal shout of "Great is Diana of the Ephesians". In Italy, the most famous shrine of Diana was at Aricia in the Alban Hills, but her worship was introduced to the Aventine Hill in Rome by King Servius Tullius as early as the Sixth Century B.C. Diana was also sometimes identified with Hecate, a goddess of the Underworld, and she was also worshipped by the Romans at crossroads under the name of Trivia.  

10.  Mars (Ares). The son of Jupiter and Juno, Mars was the god of war. His savage and sanguinary nature, which delighted in bloodshed and ruin, made him an object of hatred to all the other gods, except his half-sister Venus, who had a love-affair with him. His worship in Greece was limited, but in Rome he enjoyed the highest honours next to Jupiter himself, and as father of Romulus and Remus was considered as the founder of the Roman race. Indeed Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus (an old Roman god of Sabine origin, under whose identity Romulus was worshipped by the Romans after his death) were worshipped as the three tutelary deities of Rome, and to each of these a 'flamen' (or priest) was believed to have been appointed by King Numa Pompilius in the Seventh Century B.C. Most of the gods were considered by the Romans and Italians to have agrarian functions relevant to a largely rural society, and this was especially true in the case of Mars, who was worshipped as the protector of agriculture, and, under the name of Silvanus, as guardian of cattle. Most of his festivals fell during the month which bears his name, i.e. March, which was towards the end of the 'close season' for both war and agriculture, that is, the autumn to spring. During this month, the 'Salii', the 'leaping' priest of Mars were active. Clad like ancient Latin warriors, they danced around, brandishing their spears and clashing their holy shields, with the purpose of expelling evil spirits and, by their leaping, stimulating growth in the fields. The Salii were also active again in October, towards the end of which they laid up their shields in a ritually-significant manner to indicate the end of the campaigning season. The area of Rome dedicated to military exercises was known as the 'Campus Martius' (or the Field of Mars), and this was situated beside the Tiber just outside the city boundary. The Emperor Augustus built a large temple in the Forum dedicated to him, under the name 'Mars Ultor' (the Avenger).   

11.  Vulcan (Hephaestus).  Also the son of Jupiter and Juno, Vulcan was the god of fire and all mechanical arts. He was lame, a condition caused  by his being thrown out of heaven, either by his mother, disgusted by his weakness, or by his father, infuriated because he had sought to support his mother during one of his parents' quarrels (the traditions vary in this case). He married his half-sister Venus, but became jealous of her affections for his brother Mars. However, as we read in Book Eight of Homer's 'Odyssey', he managed to catch the two of them in a net, as they were embracing, and thus to hold them up to ridicule before the other gods. In Homer, he appears as the great artist of the gods in Olympus. He had his workshop in his palace on Olympus, which contained an anvil and twenty bellows, which at his bidding all worked spontaneously. All the palaces on Olympus were the result of Vulcan's handiwork, and he did much skilled work for the other gods. He also made Achilles' armour, in which he fought during the Trojan War, and, in the Book Eight of Virgil's 'Aeneid', he makes Aeneas, at the behest of his mother Venus, a shield in which are depicted scenes from future Roman history, including in its centre Augustus' victory at Actium and his triple triumph in 29 B.C. Virgil devotes over a hundred lines to describe this magnificent shield, his description of which subsequently exercised a great influence on the artistic and cultural imagination of later Roman artists and poets. Vulcan's favourite abode on Earth was the island of Lemnos, where he had come to rest after being hurled out of heaven, but he is also associated with other Volcanic islands, including Sicily, where in late traditions the one-eyed Cyclopes are portrayed as his workmen, forging thunderbolts for his father Jupiter. With regard to his worship, because fire is destructive, Vulcan was usually worshipped only outside the city of Rome, but his feast, the Vulcanalia, was celebrated on 23rd August. During this festival, the celebrant threw little fishes into the flames; these fish were offered for the preservation of human lives. Vulcan was also accorded his own 'flamen' or priest.  

12.  Mercury (Hermes).  Mercury, the son of Jupiter and Maia, was the messenger of the gods, and amongst his numerous attributes or functions he was the god of herdsmen, eloquence, dreams, commerce, and good luck. Jupiter made Mercury his herald and he was regularly employed by the gods, and especially his father Jupiter, to bring messages to deities and humans on the Earth. For instance at the beginning of Book Five of the 'Odyssey' he descends to Earth at Jupiter's behest to command the nymph Calypso to release Ulysses from his seven year imprisonment on the island of Ogygia. Furthermore, as recounted in Book Four of Virgil's 'Aeneid', Mercury is sent by Jupiter to remind Aeneas, who has become ensnared at Carthage by his love for Dido, that his destiny is to found a kingdom in Italy, and tells him that he and his followers must move on without delay. Another important function of Mercury was to act as the conductor of souls or shades of the dead from the upper world to Hades. He was also regarded as the god of roads and the protector of those travelling along them. Hence, numerous statues of him called 'Hermae' were erected on Greek roads, and at doorways and gates leading on to them. In his statues, Mercury is invariably shown with the following features: he wears a travelling hat, called a 'petasus', with a broad brim and often adorned with two small wings; he carries a herald's gold staff, known as a 'caduceus', also surmounted with wings and intertwined with snakes; and he wears winged sandals, which carry him across both land and sea in the course of his duties as the messenger of the gods. His son, Faunus (or Pan), born to him by a wood-nymph, was half-man, half-goat, and guarded the crops and the countryside and was famous for playing the pan-pipes, which he called the 'Syrinx'. In Rome, a temple was built for Mercury near the Circus Maximus as early as 495 B.C. and his festival was celebrated on 25th May.

"THE ROMAN REVOLUTION" BY SIR RONALD SYME : TRANSLATION OF FOOTNOTES

Introduction.

In 1939 Syme published his famous work "The Roman Revolution", which became a watershed with regard to studies of the Civil War and the subsequent process by which Julius Caesar's great-nephew and adopted son Octavianus Augustus obtained, and then maintained for a long period of over four decades, sole power in Rome. While many scholars, influenced by the propaganda of the great poets Virgil and Horace, had previously been prepared to accept Augustus' claim to have restored the republic at some degree of face value, Syme is clear that this restoration of the republic was never anything but a "screen and a sham" behind which Augustus and his oligarchic henchmen, such as Agrippa, Maecenas and Taurus, carried out a 'coup d'etat'. While Syme believed that the republican constitution of Rome was no longer capable of managing the affairs of what had become a great empire and that Augustus was doing what had to be done to restore order and prosperity, he portrays him as a sinister autocrat, capable at all times of great ruthlessness to achieve his objectives, and then to maintain the power he had achieved.  Syme was a particular authority on the historian Tacitus, whose prose style he evidently copied to a considerable extent in this book. The absence of subordinate clauses in his writing lends to Syme's work a kind of dramatic energy and urgency which underscores his grim analysis. Syme was a sceptic about the extent to which ideas had any significance within Roman political life. Instead he relies heavily on the prosopographical work of the German historians Matthias Gelzer and Friedrich Munzer to show the extent to which Augustus won his unofficial but effectively undisputed power by developing personal relationships into the establishment of a Caesarian party, which he used to defeat his enemies one by one, until he took control of the whole state. 

Syme's book is compulsive reading for classicists, but for others their full enjoyment may be vitiated by the extensive use throughout the book of detailed footnotes containing Latin and Greek quotations to back up his arguments. In the early part of the book he makes widespread use of Cicero's letters; later, the works of Velleius Paterculus and Tacitus become more dominant. However, he also makes constant use of Dio Cassius, Appian, Plutarch, Suetonius, Seneca, and many others. In later chapters he inserts a number of Latin quotations, mainly from the poets Virgil and Horace, into the text of the book. Syme assumed no doubt that the translation of all these quotations would be within the compass of his readers. One doubts if that was ever the case, beyond a small elite of classical scholars perhaps. However, the ability to enjoy this great book and to understand Syme's point of view to the full is greatly enhanced if the reader does have access to the meaning of this wealth of quotations. Sabidius has therefore carefully translated all the Latin and Greek pieces contained in the footnotes or within the text of Syme's "The Roman Revolution". In doing this, he has sought the assistance of translations of the authors which are available both on line and in publication, and, where such assistance is unavailable, for instance in relation to inscriptions, he has not hesitated to translate the quotations himself. 

Chapter I.  Augustus and History.

p.2. n.1. "Civil war was worse than illegal monarchy." (Plutarch: Brutus 12.)

p.4. n.1. " ... since it was destined that everything should come into Caesar's hands." (Plutarch: Antonius 56.)

p.6. n.1.  "Furthermore, my nature and pursuits leave me to crave for peace and freedom. The outbreak of the civil war cost me many a tear. But since I could not remain neutral because I had powerful enemies on both sides, I avoided the camp where I knew I should not be safe from my enemy's plots. Finding myself forced  to go whither I did not wish, and having no wish to travel in the rear, I certainly did not hang back from dangerous work. As for Caesar, I loved him in all duty and loyalty, because in his greatness he treated me, a recent acquaintance, as though I had been one of his oldest intimates." (C. Asinius Pollio to M. Tullius Cicero: Ad fam. 10, 31. 3.)

p.8. n.3.  "(You are dealing with) civic unrest, dating from when Metellus was consul, and the causes of the war and its crimes and phases, and the sport of chance, and the ruinous alliances of eminent men, and the weapons smeared with streams of unexpiated blood." (Horace: Odes 2, 1, 6ff.)

p.9. n.1.  "There were now many cases of individuals who would not relinquish power, and faction leaders who aspired to sole rule." (Appian: BC 1, 2, 7.)

       n.2.  "More disguised but no better." (Tacitus: Hist. 2, 38 re. Cn. Pompeius Magnus.)

     n.4.  "The practice of life, once disordered, was renewed so that all right was in relation to strength." (Sallust: Hist. 1, 18M.)

       n.5.   "The gods take no thought for our happiness but only for our punishment." (Tacitus: Hist. 1.3.)

      n.6.   "In this way the Roman state passed out of various civil disturbances into unity and monarchy." (Appian: BC 1, 64).

        n.7.  "That final peace comes with a despot." (Lucan: Pharsalia , 670.)

Chapter II.  The Roman Oligarchy.

p.11. n.2.  "The people, at that time, still disposed of other magistracies, but the nobility transmitted the consulship from hand to hand among themselves. Nor had any commoner appeared, however famous or distinguished by his achievements, who would not have been considered unworthy of that honour and, as it were, a disgrace to it." (Sallust: BJ 63,6.)

p.13. n.1.  "By the very glory of such feuds." (Tacitus: Dial. 40, 1.)

       n.4.  "He aimed at no offices, although they were open to him on account of his influence and high standing." (Nepos: Vita Attici 6, 2 re. T. Pomponius Atticus)

p.14. n.1.  "Hence that state of repose and tranquillity combined with freedom which many men prized more highly than honours attended with toil." (Sallust: Hist. 1. 55, 9M.)

         n.2.  "For the flower of the Roman knights, the ornament of the state, the great bulwark of the republic is all comprehended in that body." (Cicero: Pro Plancio 23.)

p.16. n.1.  "For indeed, as I shall state the truth in a few words, after that time whoever disturbed the republic on plausible pretexts, some as if to defend the rights of the people, others in order that the authority of the Senate should be as great as possible, while all were claiming to represent the public good, each one contended on behalf of his own interest." (Sallust: BC 38, 3.)

p.20. n.1.  "If his mother had given birth to a fifth son, she would have given birth to an ass." (Cicero: De oratore 2, 267 re. one of the Metelli.)  

p.22. n.1.  "In the Senate Crassus had more weight, but among the people the power of Pompey was great." (Plutarch: Pompey 22, 3.)

       n.2.  "When certain men, by favour of wealth, birth, or any other means, get possession of the entire government, it is a faction; but they choose to call themselves an aristocracy." (Cicero: De republica 3, 23.)

       n.3.  "Quintus Hortensius, Quintus Catulus, Quintus Metellus Pius, Marcus Lucullus and Manius Lepidus, the chief men in the state, and who were most powerful in the Senate, gave hostile evidence against him. (Asconius 53.)

p.24. n.2. " ... upon whom my hopes of success depend beyond any man." (Cicero: Ad Att. 1,1,4 re. L. Domitius Ahenobarbus.) 

         n.3.  "It was Marcus Bibulus' courage and force of character that landed him in the consulship: blunt of speech, malevolent rather than fiery by nature." (Sallust: Ad Caesarem 2, 9, 1.)

         n.5.  "Furthermore, take pains to get on your side the young men of noble birth or to retain those whose affection you already have." (Quintus Tullius Cicero: Comm. pet. 6.)

p.25. n.1.  "There was not produced at Rome for many years a single citizen of eminent ability. But within my recollection there arose two men of remarkable ability but of very different character, Marcus Cato and Gaius Caesar." (Sallust: BC 53, 5 f.)

p.26.  n .2.  "But there were other things which made them great, but which among us have no existence; such as industry at home, just government abroad, and minds impartial in council, uninfluenced by any immoral or improper feeling. Instead of such virtue we have luxury and avarice, public distress and private superfluity. We extol wealth and pusue indolence." (Sallust: BC 52, 21 f.)

         n.5.  " ... since the prowess of their ancestors has left the nobles a heritage of glory, prestige and patronage." (Sallust: Ad Caesarem 2, 11, 3.)

p.27. n.2.  "Adolescent butcher." (Valerius Maximus 6, 2, 8 re. Pompeius.)   

Chapter  III.  The Domination of Pompeius.

p.28. n.6.  "And so, in the enthusiasm engendered by his desire for renown and his nobility of spirit, though merely a private citizen and barely out of his childhood, he collected the remnants of his father's army and restored the independence of Italy and the city of Rome, when they were all but overwhelmed and destroyed." (Bell. Afr. 22, 2.)

p.30. n.1.  " ... his clients of kings and nations, about which he used to boast repeatedly." (Cicero: Ad fam. 9, 9, 2.)

        n.2.  "The people (of Miletopolis) to Gnaeus Pompeius, son of Gnaeus, Magnus, imperator three times, saviour and benefactor of the people and of the whole of Asia, the warden of earth and sea on account of his good-will towards them." (ILS 9459 (Miletopolis).

     
      n.3.  "Pompeius, the conqueror of the world and by reason of his three triumphs the chief man before god." (Manilius: Astron. 1, 793 f.)

         n.4  "Born of a humble and obscure rank." (Cicero: In Verrem II, 5, 181.)

p.31. n.1.  "renowned cattle-herds." (Varro: RR 2, 1, 2.)
       
         n.4.  "A Picene of lowly rank, more talkative then eloquent." (Sallust: Hist. 4, 43M.)

p.33. n.2.  "I, myself, though I was quite a Lycurgus to start with, am softening every day." (Cicero: Ad Att. 1, 14, 1.)

        n.3.  "Of no comfort to the poor or interest to rascals; on the other hand the rich were not pleased and honest men were not edified; so there was a frost." (Cicero: Ad Att. 1,14,1.)

         n.5a.  "He is funnier in his facial expression than in his verbal expressions." (Cicero: Ad Att. 1 ,13, 2.)

         n. 5b.  "To Marcus Piso, a man of the highest rank, most unimpeachable and most eloquent." (Cicero: Pro Plancio 12[5].)

p.34. n.4.  "Pompeius lives up to that embroidered toga of his by holding his tongue." (Cicero: 1, 18, 6.)

p.35. n.4.  " ... after Libo and Lucius Lucceius and Theophanes, with whom Pompeius used to consult on the most important matters." (Caesar: BC 3, 18, 3.)

         n.5.  "Caesar, therefore, being desirous of winning, Crassus of increasing and Pompeius of retaining, his prestige, and all alike being eager for power, readily came to an agreement to  seize the state."  (Florus: 2, 13, 11.)

      n.7.  "This domination lasted for ten years in accordance with their compact, because they were restrained by their fear of one another." (Florus 2, 13, 13.)

p.36. n.1a.  "How are you going to make that sound convincing?  Perhaps the answer will be: 'I'll keep you under with Caesar's army.'" (Cicero: Ad Att. 2, 16, 2.)

       n.1b.  "The Senate, which thought that the fortress of Cisalpine Gaul was under their control, were resentful." (Appian: BC 3, 27, 103.)

p.39. n.6.  "having been summoned to the service of the state." (Appian: BC 2, 28, 107.)

       n.7.  "Quintus Hortensius, Marcus Cicero, Marcus Marcellus, Marcus Calidius, Marcus Cato and Faustus Sulla supported Milo." (Asconius 30.)

p.40. n.3.  "that everyone ought to obey the Senate." (M. Caelius Rufus: Ad fam. 8, 14, 4.)

p.41. n.4.  "Fortune is preparing for you a great drama, which would be most attractive if only it could be free from deadly peril." (Caelius: Ad fam. 8, 14, 4.)

p.42. n.1.  "An insatiable love of power and a mad desire to be the first and the greatest." (Plutarch: Antonius 6, 3 re. Julius Caesar.)

         n.3.  "having been appointed and chosen by a faction." (Caesar: BC 1, 85, 9.)

         n.4.  "nor was he put off by the difficulty Pompeius had started some time before in the Senate: that to send deputies was to acknowledge the superiority of him to whom they were sent and a sign of timidity in he who was sending them. These reflections seemed to him to be the mark of a weak and petty spirit." (Caesar: BC 1, 32, 8 f.)

         n.5.  "He was quite contemptuous of the man, and confident in his own and the Republic's forces." (Cicero: Ad Att. 7, 8, 4.)

p.43. n.1.  " ... that he had always considered the interests of the state as preferable to personal connections." (Caesar: BC 1, 8, 3.)

         n.4.  "the prestige or our family" (Q. Metellus Celer: Ad fam. 5, 1, 1.)


Chapter IV.  Caesar the Dictator.

p.48. n.2a.  "My prestige has always been my foremost consideration, even more important than my life." (Caesar: BC 1, 9, 2.)

         n.2b.  "And he says he is doing all this fir the sake of his prestige." (Cicero: Ad Att. 7, 11, 1.)

p.49. n.1.  "For Cato now prefers to be a slave than to fight." (Cicero: Ad Att. 7, 15, 2.)

       n.2.  "They are really concerned with nothing except their fields and their bits of farms and investments." (Cicero: Ad Att. 8, 13, 2.)

p.50. n.1.  "They would have it thus; they would have condemned me to death regardless of all my victories - me, Julius Caesar, if I had not sought help from my army." (Suetonius: Divus Iulius 30, 4.)

         n.2.  "The commander knows himself well." (Livy: Per. 114)

      n.3.  "Who bore arms more justly it is impious to enquire. Each could regard his cause with a high authority: the winning cause pleased the gods, but that of the defeated pleased Cato." (Lucan: Pharsalia 1, 127 ff.)

p.51. n.1.  "Personal domination has been sought by both of them .... Both want to rule." (Cicero: 8, 11, 2.)

p.52. n.2a. " ... a decree of the Senate, by which it voted to him every honour, divine and human, and likewise the oath by which the whole of the Senate had pledged itself to watch over his safety." (Suetonius: Divus Iulius 84, 2.)

          n.2b. "And again he read out  the oaths by which they all undertook to protect Caesar and Caesar's person with all their might, and, if anyone should conspire against him, those who failed to defend him were to be accursed." (Appian: BC 2, 145.)

         n.3.  "But these and all other evils will come to an end together with the worship of money, when neither magistracies nor any of the other things which the vulgar desire are for sale." (Sallust: AD Caesarem 1, 8, 3.)

p.53. n.2. "The courts of justice must be re-established, confidence must be restored, licentiousness must be repressed, the increase of population must be encouraged, everything  which has become lax and disordered must be supported and strengthened by strict laws." (Cicero: Pro Marcello 8[23])

p.54. n.2. "But from his earliest youth Pompeius had been persuaded by the flattery of his supporters to believe he was the equal of king Alexander, and so he tried to emulate his achievements and plans." (Sallust: Hist. 3, 88M.)

p.56. n.1a. "that having now gained his dearest wish, to the annoyance and grief of his opponents, he would proceed to 'stamp upon their persons'." (Suetonius: Divus Iulius 22, 2.)

p.56. n.1b. "I must be a most unpopular man, since Marcus Cicero is sitting there and cannot get to see me at his own convenience. He is the most easy-going of men, but I don't doubt he detests me." (Cicero: Ad Att. 14, 1, 4)

         n.2.  "For if a man of such genius could not find a way out, who will find one now? " (Cicero: Ad Att. 14, 1, 1.)

          n.3.  "I have been everything and have gained nothing." (SHA Severus 18, 11.)

        n.4.  "We saw this proved just now in the effrontery of Gaius Caesar, who to gain that sovereign power which by a depraved imagination he had conceived in his fancy, trod underfoot all the laws of god and men. But the trouble about this matter is that it is in  the greatest souls and in the most brilliant geniuses that we usually find ambitions for civil and military authority, for power and for glory, springing up." (Cicero: De off. 1, 26.)

         n.5.  "I have lived long enough to satisfy either nature or glory." (Cicero: Pro Marcello 25[8].)

p.57. n.1.  "But if anything happened to him, the republic would have no peace, but be plunged into strife under worse conditions." (Suetonius: Divus Iulius 86, 2.)

         n.2.  "our former gentle master." (C. Cassius Longinus: Ad fam. 15, 19, 4.)

        n.3a. "For he speaks as though he were in Plato's 'republic' rather than in Romulus' cess-pool." (Cicero: Ad Att. 2, 1, 8 re. M. Porcius Cato).

         n.3b. "There is one of them, however, Marcus Cato, whose versatile, eloquent and  clever talents I do not despise. These are provided by the training of the Greeks, but among the Greeks manliness, vigilance and industry are wholly lacking." (Sallust: Ad Caesarem 2, 9, 3.)

p.58. n.1a. "It matters a great deal what he wants, but whatever he does want, he wants it passionately." (Cicero: Ad Att. 14, 1, 2 re. M. Junius Brutus.)

         n.1b. "you know that he feels what he says." (Quintilian 10, 1, 123.)

         n.2.  "And yet before this he would not even speak to Pompeius when he met him, considering it a great abomination to converse with the murderer of his father." (Plutarch: Brutus 4, 2.)  


Chapter V.  The Caesarian Party.

p.61. n.1a. "Pompeius himself, incited by Caesar's enemies, and because he was unable to endure anyone with a prestige equal to his, was now entirely alienated from him and had joined with their common adversaries, the majority of whom he had inflicted upon Caesar during that period of their affinity." (Caesar: BC 1, 1, 4.)

         n.1b. " ... than to those who been his and my bitter enemies, by whose machinations the country has been brought to its present pass." (Julius Caesar to C. Oppius and L. Cornelius Balbus: Ad Att. 9, 7c, 2.)

p.63. n.4.  "Gaius Curio, whose friendship gradually threw me into the arms of the accursed cause." (Caelius: Ad fam. 8, 17, 1.)

p.65. n.1.  "We are waging this civil war with one of Sulla's chiefs." (Lucan: Pharsalia 7, 307.)            

p.67. n.1.  "And as for the miserable tax-farmers (miserable man that I am also when I see the miseries and sufferings of those who have deserved so well at my hands!), he handed them over to the Jews and Syrian nations, born themselves for slavery." (Cicero: De prov. cons. 10 re. A. Gabinius.)

         n.7.  "He made Titus Labienus governor  of oRoman Gaul, by which means more support might be won for him in his bid for the consulship." (Caesar: BG 8, 52, 1.)

p.68. n.2.  "For the Marcii Reges, under which name her mother was born, are descended from Ancus Marcius; the Julii, from which stock our family comes, are descended from Venus. Thus in her descent there is united both the sanctity of kings, who prevail among men, and the reverence due to gods, who have even kings under their sway." (Suetonius: Divus Iulius 6, 1 re. Julia, wide of Marius.)

         n.3.  " .. that he, a patrician man, whose own services, as well as those of his ancestors, to the Roman people, had been so numerous ... " (Sallust: BC 31, 7 re. L. Sergius Catilina.)

         n.4.  "the Julian family." (ILS 2988.)

p.70. n.1a. "He was Caesar, and he would keep faith." (Bell. Hisp.: 19, 6.)

         n.1b. "nor could his clients be forsaken without the utmost disgrace. " (Gellius: 5, 13, 6.)

         n. 2.  "if he had made use of the assistance of bandits and cut-throats in the defence of his honour he would have shown them gratitude in such ways as well." (Suetonius: Divus Iulius 72.)

         n.3.  "the friendship of the greatest scoundrels." (Caelius: Ad fam. 8, 4, 2.)

         n.4.  "Did you not realise that, even if I were destroyed, the Roman people has legions which could not only stop you, but could even bring the skies tumbling down about you." (Bell. Hisp.: 42, 7.)

p.72. n.4.  "For who has ever been found who would confess himself an enemy to the man himself." (Cicero: Pro Balbo 58.)

p.73. n.1.  "Or is it the tax-farmers, never a reliable class and now closely attached to Caesar? Or the financiers? Or the farmers, whose first prayer is for peace? Do you suppose that they are afraid of living under a despot, when they have never objected to one so long as they were left in peace?" (Cicero: Ad Att. 18, 13, 2.)

         n.5.  "For, when we were children, this man's father, Gaius Curio, was a most gallant chief of the equestrian order, and a most extensive farmer of the public revenues, a man whose greatness of spirit, as displayed in carrying on his business, men would not have so greatly esteemed, if an incredible kindness had not also distinguished him; so that, while increasing his property, he seemed not so much to be seeking to gratify his avarice as to procure additional means for exerting his kindness." (Cicero: Pro Rabirio Postumo.)

p.74. n.2.  "The Roman Xerxes" (Velleius: 2, 33, 4 re. L. Licinius Lucullus)

p.76. n.4.  "who was not ashamed to be richer than Pompeius." (Seneca: De tranquillitate animi 8, 6 re. Demetrius of Gadara.)

p.77. n.2.  "Balbus, now, is building. Why does he bother?" (Cicero: Ad Att. 12, 2, 2.)


Chapter VI:  Caesar's New Senators.

p.78. n.1a. "The disfigurement of all honours." (Sallust: 1, 55M re. L. Fufidius.)

         n.1b. "a chief centurion." (Orosius: 5, 21, 3 re. L.Fufidius.)

         n.2a. "a rabble." (Cicero: Ad Att. 9, 10, 7; 9, 18, 2.)

p.79. n.2.  "Caesar led the Gauls in his triumph; the same Gauls laid aside their plaids in the Senate and put on tunics with a broad purple stripe." (Suetonius: Divus Iulius 80, 2.)

        n.3.  "For that is the flower of Italy, that is the mainstay of the power of the Roman people, that is the ornament of our prestige." (Cicero: Phil. 3, 13 re. Cisalpine Gaul.)

p.81. n.1a. "the rest are for the most part grafted upon the state." (Sallust: Ad Caesarem 2, 11, 3.)

         n.1b. "now, having been picked out of the whole of Italy." (Cicero: Pro Sulla 24.)

         n.1c. " a new man and an insignificant senator." (Bell. Afr. 57, 4.)

         n.1d. "men unknown and recently arrived on the scene." (Cicero: Brutus 242.)

         n.1.e. "a man of great natural capacity." (Cicero: Brutus 175 re. C. Billienus.)

         n.3.  " a virtuous and most steadfast man." (Cicero: Pro Sestio 76 re. M. Cispius.)

p.82. n.1a. "being at the head of the equestrian order." (Cicero: Ad fam. 11, 16, 2 re. L. Aelius Lamia.)

         n.1b. " a most excellent and accomplished man."(Cicero: In Pisonem 64. re. L. Aelius Lamia.)

         n.2.  "Postumus Curtius called, talking about nothing but fleets and armies." (Cicero: AD Att. 9, 2a, 3.)

         n.3a. "far and away the greatest noble in an important district of Italy." (Cicero: Ad fam. 6, 6, 9 re. A. Caecina of Volaterrae.)

           n.3b. " a man foremost in virtue, reputation and nobility not only in the town of Larinum, from which he came, but also in that region and neighbourhood." (Cicero: Pro Cluentio 11 re. A. Cluentius Habitus.)

p.83. n.1.  "O Aelius, nobly descended from ancient Lamus." (Horace: Odes 3, 17, 1.)

         n. 8.  "a movement was begun for the Cilnii, a very powerful family, to be driven out through envy of their wealth." (Livy: 10, 3, 2.)

p.84. n.5.  "he attempted to make himself master of Italy by means of his dependants." (Suetonius: Tiberius 2, 2 re. Claudius the Censor.)

p.86. n.3.  "whom its own freedom compelled it to take up arms honourably." (Ovid: Amores 3, 15, 9 re. the Paeligni.)

p.87. n.3.  "that their city must be overthrown and destroyed, and adding that these wolves, the ravishers of Italy's liberty will never vanish unless the forest, in which they are accustomed to take refuge, is cut down." (Velleius 2, 27, 2.)

p.88. n.2.  "on account of his noble deeds,and on account of his wealth and lineage, he was summoned to the Senate of the Romans." (Appian: BC 4, 4, 25 re. Statius.)

p.89. n.4.  "those bulwarks of the Roman people." (Cicero: Pro Cluentio 153.)

         n.6.  "for this purpose there were many from the colonies and municipal towns, nobles in their own localities." (Sallust: BC 17, 4.)

p.90. n.3.  "by the great things which he had done." (Caesar: BC 1, 13, 1.)

         n.7.  "the chief man of the colony." (Valerius Maximus: 9, 3, 8 re. Granius of Puteoli.)

p.91. n.5.  "That fellow Scato, a man whose virtue it was, no doubt, that had made him poor, so poor that among the Marsi, where he was born, he had no house in which he could take refuge from the rain." (Cicero: De domo sua 116.)

         n.6.  "he did not stop until he had either killed all those with the name of Samnites or driven them out of Italy." (Strabo: p.249 re. Sulla.)


Chapter VII.  The Consul Antonius.

p.97. n.2.  "I should have written with more fire." (Cicero: AD Att. 15, 1a, 2.)

p.98. n.1a.  "To these he added a very few words of his own." (Suetonius: Divus Iulius 84, 2.)

       n.1b. "Yesterday evening Hirtius called on me, and told me about Antonius' disposition, which is, of course, as bad and untrustworthy as possible." (D. Junius Brutus to M. Brutus and C. Cassius: Ad fam. 11, 1.)

p.99. n.2.  "with the courage of a man but with the judgment of a child." (Cicero: AD Att. 14, 21, 3.)

p.101.n.4. "whom you yourself are accustomed to call most illustrious men." (Cicero: Phil. 2, 5.)

p.102. n.1.  "Things are really going better, and now we seem to be about to have a leader, which is the one thing the country towns and honest citizens lack." (Cicero: Ad Att. 14, 20, 4.)  

         n.3.  "He was no less afraid of our side appealing to arms than Antonius doing so." (Cicero: AD Att. 15, 1, 3 re. P. Cornelius Dolabella.)

p.105. n.1a. "Of this man I am not unaware that he had a bad reputation in the city, and that many foul things were said about him; but in the government of provinces he acted with the virtue of ancient times." (Tacitus: Ann. 6, 32 re. C. Petronius.)

          n.1b. " ... rather free of vices than distinguished by virtues." (Tacitus: Hist. 1, 49 re. Ser. Sulpicius Galba.)

p.106. n.1a. "Antonius' conversation with our heroes is not unsatisfactory in the circumstances." (Cicero: Ad Att. 14, 6, 1.)

          n.1b. "Antonius is even winning the approval of our friend Brutus." (Cicero: Ad Att. 14, 8, 1.)

          n.4.  "So you have your old 'bald-head' bitterly hostile to the public peace, that is to Brutus." (Cicero: Ad Att. 14, 2, 3 re. C. Matius Calvena.)

         n.5.  "Doubtless these men are lovers of peace and not agents of robbery." (Cicero: Ad Att. 14, 10, 2.)

p.108. n.5.  "But what is all that to me? Yet do try to sniff out what Antonius' disposition is. Indeed, I think he takes more account of his banquets than any mischievous designs." (Cicero: Ad Att. 14, 3, 2.)


Chapter VIII.  Caesar's Heir.

p.112. n.1.  "Augustus himself tells us that nothing more than that he was descended from an equestrian family, both ancient and wealthy, among whom his father was the first to become a senator." (Suetonius: Divus Augustus 2, 3.)

          n.2.  "a man of dignity, of upright and blameless life, and of of great wealth." (Velleius 2, 59, 2 re. C. Octavius.)

p.113. n.2.  "and you too, O boy, who owes everything to his name." (Cicero: Phil. 3, 24.)

         n.6.  "He is quite devoted to me." (Cicero: Ad. Att. 14, 11, 2.)

p.117. n.2.  "This is what he proclaimed in public, but secretly rejoicing, he interpreted that he had been born within it and that it had been produced for him, and, if one confessed the truth, it provided a salutary omen for the world at large." (Pliny the Elder: NH 2, 94 [23])

          n.4a.  "They brought news as follows: Brutus' and Cassius' edict, a full meeting of the Senate to take place on the Kalends, letters despatched by Brutus and Cassius to ex-consuls and ex-praetors asking them to be present. They reported high hopes that Antonius would give way, a compromise be reached and our friends return to Rome." (Cicero: Ad Att. 16, 7, 1.")

         n.4b. "that parties were coming to an agreement: that the Senate was to meet on the 1st August." (Cicero: Phil. 1, 8.)

p.118.n.1.  "the harangue of Marcus Antonius, with which I was so much pleased that, after I had read it, I began for the first time to think of returning." (Cicero: Phil. 1, 8.)

p.121. n.1.  "People blame me for showing grief at the death of a dear friend, and expressing indignation that the man whom I had loved had been killed; for they say that country should be preferred to friendship, as though they had actually proved that his death had benefited the republic. But I shall not try to be clever; for I confess that I have not attained that height of philosophy; for in the civil conflict I did not follow Caesar, but a friend." (Matius: Ad fam. 11, 28, 2.)

p.122. n.1a. "The citizens were still at peace and yet already at war; the appearance of liberty was maintained, but the deeds done were those of a monarchy. (Dio: 45, 11, 2 ff.)

         n.1b. "For they loved neither man, but they were always eager for a change of government, and it was their nature to overthrow every party which had the upper hand and to help the one that was being oppressed; consequently, they made use of the two to suit their own desires. Thus, after humbling Antonius by means of Caesar, they next undertook to destroy the latter also." (Dio: 45, 11, 3.)



Chapter IX.  The First March on Rome.

p.124. n.1.  "Men of the world, however, and loyalists both believe it took place and approve of it." (Cicero: Ad fam. 12, 23, 2.)

         n.3.  "For it seems that the republic is about to recover its legitimate authority." (Cicero: Ad Att. 15,13,4.)

p.128. n.2a. "Octavius, whom his own people addressed as Caesar, but Philippus did not, so I did not do so either." (Cicero: Ad Att. 14, 12, 2.)

         n.2b. "But what confidence one can feel in a man of his age, name, inheritance, and upbringing may well give us pause. His step-father, whom I have seen at Astura, thinks none at all." (Cicero: Ad Att. 15, 12, 2.)

p.129. n.3.  "The father of Marcus Agrippa was unknown even after Agrippa became famous." (Seneca: De ben. 3, 32, 4)

p.131. n.4.  "You know what a reserved fellow he is." (Cicero: Ad Att. 14, 21, 2 re. Balbus.)

          n.9.  "and in this plan and in the events which followed, he had the approval of his friends. These were Marcus Agrippa, Lucius Maecenas, Quintus Juventius, Marcus Modalius and Lucius." (Nicolaus: Vita Caesaris 31, 133.)

p.133. n.2a. "That's all moonshine, considering the torpid and bibulous habits of these men." (Cicero: Ad Att. 16, 1, 4 re. A. Hirtius and C. Vibius Pansa.)

          n.2b. "whom I know to be thoroughly full of vice and the most womanish weakness." (Quintus Cicero to Tiro: Ad fam. 16, 27, 1 re. Hirtius and Pansa.)

         n.3.  "He speaks very well but he passes his time and shares a house with Balbus, who also speaks well too." (Cicero: Ad Att. 14, 20, 4 re. Hirtius.)

          n.4.  "And is he opposed to Antonius? When and where? How much longer are we going to be fooled? (Cicero: Ad Att. 15, 22, 1 re. Pansa.)

p.134. n.2.  "There were others who from the middle ground tried to foment enmity between them and did so ... the chief of these were Publius, Vibius, Lucius and especially Cicero." (Nicolaus: Vita Caesaris 28, 111 re. P.Servilus Vatia Isauricus, Pansa, L. Cornelius Piso and Cicero.)  


Chaper X.  The Senior Statesman. 

p.138. n.3. "We are over-fearful of death, exile and poverty. I think these are the worst of evils in Cicero's eyes, and that, while he has people from whom to get what he wants, and by whom to be made much of and flattered, he has no aversion to servitude." (M. Brutus to Atticus: Ad M. Brutum 1, 17, 4.)

p.139. n.1.  "Nor did I depart anywhere, nor did I ever take my eyes off the republic from the day on which we were summoned to meet in the temple of Tellus." (Cicero: Phil. 1, 1.)

         n.2.  "For a man who wishes to be neutral stays in his own country." (Cicero: Ad Att. 10, 10, 2.)

         n.4.  "I don't want Sextus to discharge his shield." (Cicero: Ad Att. 15, 29, 1 re. Sex. Pompeius.)

p.140. n.1.  "Nor am I returning to Rome in order to take part in politics, as Brutus recommends". (Cicero: Ad Att. 16, 7, 7.)

p.141. n.3.  "Still he is to be encouraged and, if nothing else, kept apart from Antonius." (Cicero: Ad Att. 15, 12, 2.)

p.142. n.4.  "I am not influenced by Philippus or Marcellus. Their position is different, and, if it isn't, it appears to be." (Cicero: Ad Att. 16, 14, 2.)

p.143. n.1. "Therefore, although Octavius calls Cicero 'father', consults him in everything, praises him and thanks him, yet the truth will come out that words do not agree with deeds." (M. Brutus to Atticus: Ad Brutum 1, 17, 5.)

         n.3. "I am well acquainted with all the feelings of the young man: there is nothing dearer to him than the republic, nothing that he considers of more weight than your authority; nothing which he desires more than the approbation of virtuous men, nothing that he accounts sweeter than genuine glory." (Cicero: Phil. 5, 50 re. Octavianus.) 

p.145.   n.3.  "Behold, there you have a man who was ambitious to be king of the Roman People and master of the whole world; and he achieved it! The man who maintains that such an ambition is morally right is a madman; for he justifies the destruction of law and liberty, and thinks their hideous and detestable suppression glorious." (Cicero: De off. 3, 83.)

         n.5.  "He says, concerning a chief of state being appointed, that he must be nourished by glory."  (St. Augustine: De civ. dei 5, 13 quoting Cicero in De re publica.)

p.147. n.1.  "For he began enmities with a spirit greater than he could maintain." (Seneca the Elder: Suasoriae 6, 24. re. Cicero.)

         n.2.  "Of these counsels I confess that I have been and still am an adviser and prompter to Caesar." (Cicero: Phil. 3, 19.)

          n.3.  "O Brutus, where are you? What an opportunity you are losing!" (Cicero: Ad Att. 16, 8, 2.)

p.148. n.1.  "not up to the end of the civil war, of which no end is in sight, but up to the end of Caesar's life." (Hirtius: Caesar's BG 8, praef 2.)


Chapter XI.  Political Catchwords.

P.149. n.2. "Vultures in a general's cloak." (Cicero: Pro Sestio 71.)

p.150. n.9.  "a gallant man." (Cicero: De imp. Cn. Pompei 52, 57 re. Gabinius.)

           n.10.  "both excellent men and the most learned of mankind." (Cicero: De finibus 2, 119 re. Siro and Philodemus of Gadara.)

 p.151. n.5  "Just see how all we who come from municipal towns - that's absolutely all of us - are despised: for how many of us are there who do come from these towns?" (Cicero: Phil. 3, 15.)

            n.9.  "Come together all you augurs and soothsayers!" A strange portent has recently taken place: for a man who has rubbed down mules has become consul." (Gellius 15, 4, 3 re. P. Ventidius.)


          n.10.  "Citizens, look after your wives; we are bringing home that bald adulterer: you have wasted in debauchery in Gaul the borrowed gold you have spent there." (Suetonius: Divus Iulius 51.)

p.152. n.1.  "What a droll consul we have!" (Plutarch: Cato minor 21 re. Cicero.)

p.154. n.1.  "(While all) were claiming to represent the public good, each one contended on behalf of his own interest." (Sallust: BC 38, 3.)

         n.2.  "Citizens were not called 'good' or 'bad' according to their public conduct, because in that respect they were all equally corrupt; but those who were wealthiest and most able to inflict harm were considered 'good' because they defended the existing state of affairs." (Sallust: Hist. 1, 12M.)

        n.3.  "and they changed the usual meaning of words in relation to facts by the arbitrary construction put upon them." (Thucydides 3, 82, 4.)

         n.4.  "For those who were successful were considered shrewd and patriotic, while the defeated were called enemies of their country and accursed." (Dio: 46, 34, 5.)

p.155. n.2.  "and he restored the independence of Italy and the city of Rome when they were almost totally overwhelmed and destroyed." (Bell. Afr. 22, 2 re. Pompeius.)

          n.3.  "in order to liberate himself and the Roman people who had been opposed by a small faction." (Caesar: BC 1, 22, 5 re. Julius Caesar.)

          n.4.  "Liberty, indeed, and similar specious names are their pretexts; but never did any man seek to enslave his fellows and secure dominion for himself without using the very same words." (Tacitus: Hist. 4, 73.)  

          n.5.  "At the age of nineteen, on my own initiative, and at my own expense, I raised an army, by means of which I restored liberty to the republic, which had been oppressed by the tyranny of a faction." (Augustus: Res Gestae 1, 1.)

p.156. n.1.  "to be afraid of peace." (Cicero: Ad Att. 14, 21, 3; 15, 2, 3.)

          n.3.  "that peacemaking." (Cicero: Ad Att. 15, 7; Ad fam. 10, 27, 2.)

          n.4.  "The name of peace is sweet and the thing itself is salutary; but between peace and slavery there is a very wide difference." (Cicero: 2, 113.)

          n.5.  "So why do I not want peace? Because it would be shameful, because it would be perilous, because it cannot possibly be real." (Cicero: Phil. 13, 1.)

            n.6.  "I have been afraid lest the insidious terms of peace might dampen our zeal fir the recovery of our liberty." (Cicero: Phil. 13, 1.)

            n.7.  "I will say what it becomes one who is both a senator and a Roman man to say - let us die!" (Cicero: Phil. 7, 14.)

p.157. n.1.  "but such a union between honourable men is friendship and between bad men is a faction." (Sallust: BJ 31, 15.)

            n.2.  "piety." (Appian: BC 2, 104, 430.)
       
           n.3.  "the pious Pompeius the Great." (ILS 8891.)

          n.4.  "that dutiful feeling towards a father, and the necessities of the state, in which laws had no place at that time, drove him into civil war." (Tacitus: Ann. 1, 9 re. Octavianus.)

           n.5.  "in fact because of his devotion to his brother he took the cognomen 'Pietas'." (Dio: 48, 5, 4 re. L. Antonius.)

p.158. n.1.  "What if I lay aside my enmity itself for the sake of the republic, who, I should like to know, would have a right to blame me?" (Cicero: De prov. cons. 20.)

      n.2. "that it had been his constant maxim to prefer the interests of the republic to any private connections." (Caesar: BC 1, 8, 3 re. Pompeius.)

           n.3a. "Caesar has sacrificed all those enmities for the republic." (Cicero: Phil 5, 50 re. Octavianus.)

           n.3b. "Even granting that the deaths of Cassius and of the Bruti were sacrifices to a hereditary enmity, although duty does require us to waive private feuds for the sake of the public welfare." (Tacitus: Ann. 1, 10.)

          n.4.  "to forget private quarrels and to consult for the highest interests of the republic." (M. Aemilius Lepidus to the Magistrates and Senate: Ad fam. 10, 35, 2.)

          n.5.  "I will not be stopped by private quarrels from coming to an understanding with my bitterest foe on behalf of the safety of the republic." (L. Munatius Plancus: Ad fam. 10, 11, 3.)

          n.6a. "They want Hirtius made a better citizen by my influence." (Cicero: Ad Att. 14, 20, 4.)

         n.6b. "He begs and entreats me to bring Hirtius over to the right side as much as possible." (Cicero: Ad Att. 15, 5, 1 re. Cassius.)

          n.7.  "hot-headed outlaws," "parricides," and "madness". (Plancus: Ad fam. 10, 23, 3 and 5.)

          n.8.  "if by any means he could be brought to see reason." (Bell. Afr. 4, 1.)      

p.159. n.1  "They thought that thyb were not so much serving in the army as lending assistance by their own favour and judgment." (Appian: BC 5, 17, 69)

         n.2.  "The common pretence of the generals that they were all striving fir the good of the country made desertion easy, since one could serve one's country wherever one was." (Appian: 5, 17, 71.)

        n.3.  "Let this be the new style of conquest, to fortify ourselves by mercy and generosity." (Julius Caesar to Oppius and Balbus: Ad Att. 9, 7c, 1.)

            n.4.  "Spare your fellow-citizens." (Suetonius: Divus Iulius 75, 2.)

         n.5a. "For my whole army broke out into a mutiny, by way of retaining its traditional principle of preserving fellow-citizens and the general peace, and, in all honesty, compelled me to undertake to defend the lives and civil rights of so large a number of Roman citizens." (Lepidus to the Magistrates and Senate: Ad fam. 10, 35, 1.)

              n.5b. "peace and compassion to distressed fellow-citizens." (Appian: BC 3, 12, 84.)

p.160. n.2.  "on account of the citizens who have been preserved." (BMC, R. Emp. 1, 29.)

           n.3. "public authority." (Cicero: Phil. 3 and 5 passim.)

           n.4.  "For he has not spent it - he has invested it in the security of the republic." (Cicero: Phil. 3, 3.)

          n.6.  "I laid,in my opinion, with the greatest agreement on your part, the foundations of the republic." (Cicero: Phil. 5, 30.)

          n.7.  "By what law? By what right? By that which Jupiter himself has sanctioned, that everything which was advantageous to the republic should be considered legal and just." (Cicero: Phil. 11, 28.) 

          n.8.  "For an extraordinary command is a measure suited  rather to the fickle character of the mob, one which does not at all become our dignity or this order." (Cicero: Phil. 11, 17.)
     
          n.9.  "For Brutus and Cassius have in many instances been a very senate in themselves." (Cicero: Phil. 11, 27.)


Chapter XI.  The Senate against Antonius.  

p.162. n.1a. "In the next place, the province of Gaul is praised, and is deservedly complimented in the most honourable language by the Senate for resisting Antonius. But, if that province considered him to be the consul and still refused to receive him, it would be guilty of great wickedness. For all the provinces belong to the consul as of right, and are bound to obey him." (Cicero: Phil. 4, 9.).

          n.1b. "Wherefore I don't suppose that Pansa and Hirtius will hurry themselves to go to their provinces whilst they are consuls, but will conduct the consulship at Rome." (P. Cornelius Lentulus Spinther: Ad fam. 12, 14, 5.)

p.164. n.7a. "For I will never be induced to believe that there are men who envy the consistency or diligence of others and who are indignant at the unceasing desire to assist the republic being approved by the Senate and people of Rome. (Cicero: Phil. 8, 30.)

          n.7b. "A certain number are envious of the reputation of those whom they see to be held in honour in the republic." (Cicero: Ad fam. 12, 5, 3.)

p.165. n.2.  "You know of course - for it could not possibly have escaped you - that there has been a period during which people thought you too much inclined to the circumstances of the times." (Cicero: Ad fam. 10, 3, 3 re. Plancus.)

p.166. n.1a. "that greatest weathercock of a man." (D. Brutus : ad fam. 11, 9. 1 re. Lepidus.)

           n.1b. "That basest and meanest of all men." (Cicero: Ad Att. 9, 9, 3 re. Lepidus.)

p.168. n.1.  "to be elected into that council by the whole people." (Cicero: Pro Sestio 137.)

p.170. n.1 "(who) not only exhorted his neighbours  to become soldiers, but also assisted them from his own resources." (Cicero: Phil. 7, 24 re. L. Visidius.) 

          n.2.  "On the other hand nothing can be more loathsome. nothing more shameful than the conduct of our emissaries Philippus and Piso. (Cicero: Ad fam. 12, 4, 1.)

p.173. n.4.  "Under the influence of my warm feeling for you I have written these words with somewhat unusual gravity." (Cicero: Ad fam. 10, 6, 3. re. Plancus.)  

           n.5.  "So in my opinion you will be acting more  wisely if you do not commit yourself to proposing a peace which has the approval of neither the Senate nor the people, nor of any patriotic man."  (Cicero: Ad fam. 10, 27, 2. re. Lepidus.)  

p.174. n..3.  "at which, if certain people rejoice for the moment, because both officers and veterans of Caesar's party appear to have perished, yet it is inevitable that they will have cause to mourn, when they contemplate the havoc of Italy. For the flower and mainstock of our soldiers have been destroyed." (Pollio: Ad fam. 10,  33, 1.)

           n.4.  "For nothing  flourishes  for ever; age succeeds age; the legions of Caesar have flourished for a long time; but now those who are flourishing are the legions of Pansa, and the legions of Hirtius, and the legions of the son of Caesar, and the legions of Plancus; they surpass the veterans in number, they have the advantage of youth; moreover they surpass them also in authority." (Cicero: Phil. 11, 39.)

          n.5.  "Amazement took possession of the new levies coming up, as they beheld such deeds done with precision and in silence." (Appian: BC 3, 68.)


Chapter XIII.  The Second March on Rome.

p.176. n.1.  "But neither can anyone control Caesar, nor can he control his own army, which is a disastrous thing in both cases." (D. Brutus: Ad fam. 11, 10, 4.)

p.177. n.1.  "There shall therefore be a vast monument erected with the most sumptuous work and and an inscription engraved upon it as the everlasting witness of your godlike virtue. And never shall the most grateful language of all who either see or hear of your great monument cease to be heard. And in this manner you, in exchange for your mortal condition of life, have attained immortality. (Cicero: Phil. 14, 33.)

          n.2.  "Men who will count the destruction of either you or me as of either you or me as gain to them, which spectacle as yet fortune herself has taken care to avoid, lest she sees two armies which belong to one body fighting, with Cicero acting as master of the show." (Cicero: Phil. 13, 40.)

p.178. n.1.  "Although they have done me a serious wrong in having joined Antonius contrary to my wish, yet for kindness' sake, and in view of our close connexion, I have granted them their lives." (Lepidus: Ad fam. 10, 34, 2.)

p.179. n.2.  "But if you take the lives and political position of all into consideration, you will consult better for yourselves and the republic." (Lepidus to the Magistrates and Senate of Rome: Ad fam. 10, 35, 2.)

           n.3.  "For I knew Lepidus thoroughly." (Plancus: Ad fam. 10, 23, 1.)

         n.4.  "For how safe it is to trust raw levies in the field, we have had too frequent experience." (Plancus: Ad fam. 10, 24, 3.)

p.180. n.3.  "civil war was worse than illegal monarchy." (Plutarch: Brutus 12, 3.)
p.181.n. 1. "mad conduct" and "infatuated." (Plancus: Ad fam. 10.11.2.)

          n.2.  "But the unanimity of the whole Roman people is wonderful." (Cicero: Ad fam. 12,5,3.)

          n.5.  "Who was it, what god was it who at that time gave to the Roman people this godlike young man? (Cicero: Phil. 5, 43 re. Octavianus.)

p.182. n.1.  "the young man was to be complimented, honoured, and got rid of." (D. Brutus: Ad fam. 11, 20, 1.)
          n.3. "I will only say this much: that this young Caesar, thanks to whom, if we confess the truth, we still exist, has flowed from the fountain-head of my policy." (Cicero: Ad M. Brutum 1, 15, 6.)

          n.4.  " ... up to that time wholly governed by my advice, and personally possessed of brilliant ability and an admirable firmness of character." (Cicero: Ad M. Brutum 1, 10, 3.) 

            n. 6. " mad man." " ... he was so crushed by me that I hope I have brought him to a more reasonable frame of mind. (Cicero: Ad M. Brutum 2, 2, 3 re. Servilius Vatia.)

p.183. n.5. "A salutary sternness is superior to an empty show of clemency, but if we choose the rule of clemency we shall never have any lack of civil wars." (Cicero: Ad M. Brutum 1, 2a, 2.)

         n.6. "more vigour should be shown in preventing civil wars than in wreaking vengeance upon the vanquished." (Cicero: Ad M. Brutum 1, 2a, 2.)

          n.8. " ... that for the sake of enduring harmony in the republic they were even ready to live in permanent exile, and that they would furnish no grounds for civil war." (Velleius: 2, 62, 3 re. Brutus and Cassius.)

p.185. n.1. "I blush to think of my position and high estate, but I must write it: you commend our safety to him! Could any death be a worse disaster? You, in fact, avow that slavery is not abolished, only the master has been changed! Recall your words and dare to say that those prayers are not the prayers of an enslaved subject to a tyrant." (M. Brutus: Ad M. Brutus 1, 16, 1.)

           n.2a. "And yet it is better not to be (safe) than to be so by his favour." (M. Brutus: Ad M. Brutus 1, 16, 1.) 

            n.2b. "Nor could I be saved by such a rescuer." (Cicero: Ad Att. 16, 15, 3 re. Octavianus.)

          n.3.  "I will remove myself from the servile herd and for myself will regard as Rome wherever I am able to be free, and I shall only feel pity for men like yourself, for whom neither age nor honours nor the example of others' virtue has been able to lessen the sweetness of living." (Brutus: Ad M. Brutus 1, 16, 8.)
         

Chapter XIV.  The Proscriptions. 

p.189. n.4.  " ... and had held no command at all in those regions." (Dio: 48, 4, 3 re. L. Antonius.)

p.190. n.6.  "These events are many, and they have been written in numerous books by many Roman historians successively." (Appian: BC 4, 16, 64.)

p.191. n.1.  " for some time he opposed his colleagues in their design for a proscription, but, after it was begun, he prosecuted it more vigorously than either of them." (Suetonius: Divus Augustus 27,1.)

p.192. n.1.  "But since no single mortal has achieved perfect virtue, the better aspects of his way of life and of his character are what a man must be judged by." (Seneca the Elder: Suasoriae 6, 24.)

        n.3.  "but he gradually incurred blame from some of the nobles because he did not seem to have sufficient hatred towards bad men." (Nepos: Vita Attici.)

p.195. n.1.  "whom it would be superfluous to enumerate, and who have enriched themselves at the cost of the blood of Roman citizens and the licence that comes from proscription." (Pliny the Elder: NH 35, 200 or 35.58[Eng.] or 35.72[Lat.])

           n.2.  "they affected a kind of common enmity against the rich." (Dio: 47, 6, 2.)

           n.3.  " ... so that Caesar's sovereignty appeared in comparison all gold." (Dio: 47, 15, 4.)

p.201. n.1.  " ... he will live among men such as Ventidius, Canidius and Saxa." (Seneca the Elder: Suasoriae 7, 3.)          



Chapter XV.  Philippi and Perusia. 
p.203. n.2.  " ... he says that he felt more shame at the cause of Cicero's death than grief at the event itself, and threw the blame upon his friends at Rome. For their servitude was more the fault of themselves than of the tyrants." (Plutarch: Brutus 28, 2.)

p.205. n.5.  "No other war cost the lives of so many illustrious men." (Velleius: 2, 71, 1.)

p.206. n.2.  "O wretched Valour, thou wert but a name, / And yet I worshipped thee as real indeed, / But now it seems thou wert but Fortune's slave." (Dio: 47, 49, 2.)

           n.4.  "He says also that Marcus Antonius was paying a fitting penalty for his folly, since when it was in his power to be numbered with such men as Brutus and Cassius and Cato, he had given himself to Octavius as a mere appendage, and, if he should now be defeated with him, in a little while he would be fighting him." (Plutarch: Brutus 29, 7.)

p.207. n.3.  " ... lamenting and declaring that they had done nothing wrong, and that, although they were Italians, they were being evicted from hearth and home, as if they had lost a war." (Appian: BC, 5, 2, 12.)

p.209. n.1.  "The Senate in soldiers' boots." (Dio: 48, 13, 3.)

           n.2.  " ... to fight if anyone assailed his dignity." (Appian: BC 5, 3, 39 re. M. Antonius.)

p.211. n.1.  "Marcus Antonius imperator." (CIL XI, 6721.)

           n.2.a. "The Eleventh Legion to the Divine Julius." (CIL XI, 6721.)

           n.2b. "O bald Lucius Antonius, through the victories of Gaius Caesar you have perished." (CIL XI, 6721.)

           n.3.  "Roman frankness." (Martial 11, 20.)

           n. 4. "But I am silent: for it is not easy to write against a man who the power to proscribe." (Macrobius: 2,4,21 re. Pollio.)


Chapter XVI.  The Predominance of Antonius.

p.215. n.1. " ... under the sway of his passion and of his drunkenness." (Dio: 48, 27, 1 re. M. Antonius.)

p.217. n.4. "A statue of concord." (ILS 3784.)

p.218. n.1.  "Now another age is worn away by civil wars, and Rome herself falls by her own strength." (Horace: Epodes 16, 1, 1-2.)

p.219. n.1. "But as soon as you can read about the fame of heroes and your father's deeds and learn what virtue is ... " (Virgil: Ecl. 4, 26-7).

p.220. n.1.  " ... reign over a world pacified by his father's valour." (Virgil: Ecl. 4, 17.)

          n.6.  "It was at this time that the criminal designs of Rufus Salvidienus were revealed. This man, sprung from the most obscure origins, was not satisfied with having received the highest honours in the state, and to have been the first man of equestrian rank after Gnaeus Pompey and Caesar himself to be elected consul, but aspired to mount to a height where he might see both Caesar and the republic at his feet." (Velleius: 2, 76, 4.)


Chapter XVI.  The Rise of Octavianus.

p.227. n.2.  " ... the better and more advantageous cause." (Velleius: 2, 51,3.)

p.228. n.4.  "Neptune's admiral" (Horace: Eopdes 9, 7 re. Sex Pompeius.)

           n.5.  "I freed the sea from pirates." (Res Gestae: 25.)

p.229. n.1. " ... he divorced her too because, as he wrote, he was quite exhausted by the perverseness of her temper." (Suetonius: Divus Aug. 62, 2 re. Octavianus and Scribonia.)

           n.7.  " ... married previously to two ex-consuls." (Suetonius: Divus Aug. 62, 2. re. Scibonia.)

p.232. n.4.  " ... bearing nothing except his name." (Velleius 2, 80, 4.)

         n.5.  " ... his honour, which he was unable to maintain, was taken from him." (Velleius 2, 80, 4 re. Lepidus.)

           n.6.  " ... but thinking that he had right all on his side, as well as in his weapons, inasmuch as he waas stronger than him." (Dio: 49, 12, 1.)

p.233. n.5.  "A god has arranged this ease for us." (Virgil: Ecl. 1, 6.)

           n.6.  " ... and the towns gave him a place among their gods." (Appian: 5, 132.)

p.235. n.6.  " ... from the rank of a private citizen to that of a consul." (Velleius: 2, 51, 3.)

p.237. n.3.  " ... of the Minotaur, that is Calvisius and Taurus." (Cicero: Ad fam. 12, 25, 1.)

p.238 n.4a. "one of the seven priests for the Feast of Jupiter" and "president of his curia." (ILS 925 re. Calvisius.)

           n.4b. "numerous priesthoods." (Velleius: 2, 127, 1 re. Taurus.) 


Chapter XVIII.  Rome under the triumvirs.

p.245. n.1.  "Nobility has its origin in merit." (Sallust: BJ 85, 17.)

p.245. n.1.  " ... neither is honour conferred through merit, nor are those, who have gained power through illegal means, the more secure or respected for it." (Sallust: BJ 3, 1.)

           n.2.  "Even men of humble birth, who formerly used to surpass the nobility in merit, pursue power and honour by underhand intrigue and open violence rather than by honourable means." (Sallust: BJ 4, 7-8)

         n.4.  " ... unless he is possessed by a dishonourable and fatal desire to sacrifice his honour and freedom to the power of a faction." (Sallust: BJ 3, 4.)

p.247. n.3.  " ... for my eightieth year admonishes me to gather up my bundle before I set forth from this life." (Varro: RR 1, 1, 1.)

p.248. n.3.  "It was not my intention to waste my precious leisure in idleness or sloth, or of devoting my time to agriculture or  hunting, tasks fit only for slaves." (Sallust: BJ 4, 1.)  

           n.4.  "Among other employments which are pursued by the intellect the recording of past events is of particular value." (Sallust: BJ 4, 1.)

            n.5a. "I fear to compare Sallust with Thucydides." (Quintilian 10, 1, 101.)

            n.5b. " ... that immortal rapidity of Sallust's." (Quintilian: 10, 1, 102.)

p.249. n.1.  "Thus, when Sallust was in his glory, phrases were lopped off, words came to a close unexpectedly, and obscure conciseness was preferred to elegance." (Seneca: Epp.114, 17.)

           n.3.  "The laws, the courts, the the treasury, the provinces, the kings, in fact, the power of life and death over our citizens are in the hands of one man. You have even beheld human sacrifices and tombs stained with the blood of citizens." (Sallust: Hist. 1, 55, 13 f. M.)

n.5. "Honest of face, but with a shameless mind." (Sallust: Hist.2, 16M. re. Pompey.)

p.250. n.4.  " ... and, if anyone reads of the acts of these veterans, he will find the proceedings of ours like theirs, and be of the opinion that there is no difference between them but that of time." (Nepos: Vita Eumenis 8, 3.)

p.251. n.1. " ... being the first freedman, according to the opinion of Cornelius Nepos, who ventured to wrote history, which before his time had not been done by anyone who was not of the highest rank in society." (Suetonius: De rhet. 3 re. L. Voltacilius Pitholaus.)

p.253. n.2.  "My first notes were inspired by you: for you my last ones will sound." (Virgil: Ecl. 8, 11 re. Pollio.)

           n.4.  "a versifier rather than a poet." (Quintilian: 10, 1, 89 re. Corneliusd Severus.)

p.254. n.4.  "You, who have travelled through many lands, have you seen any land more fully cultivated than Italy?" (Varro: RR 1, 2, 3.)


Chapter XIX.  Antonius in the East.

p.262. n.5.  "The Senate is guilty of a great crime. We have taken no notice of that great man Theopompus! Why, who on earth knows or cares where he is, or what he is doing, or, indeed, whether he is alive or dead." (Cicero: Phil. 13, 33.)

p.263. n.2.  "To the most divine god Theophanes, bountiful lover of his country, the saviour and benefactor and second founder of his city." (SIG 751 f.) 

          n.3.  "To the manifest god, the son of Ares and Aphrodite, the common saviour of mankind." (SIG 760 re. Julius Caesar.)

            n.4.  "To Antonius, the great and inimitable." (OGIS 195.)

p.267. n.1. "He recruited Sallust and Cocceius and Dellius and the whole inner circle of his court from the camp of his opponents." (Seneca: De clem. 1, 10, 1. re. Octavianus.)

p.269. n.4.  "ambassador and propraetor." (ILS 9461 re. L. Sempronius Atratinus.)

p.274. n.1.  " .. that Aphrodite had come to revel with Dionysus for the good of Asia." (Plutarch: Antonius 26, 3.)

         n.5. " ... since it was destined that everything should come into Caesar's hands." (Plutarch: Antonius 56, 3.)

Chapter XX.  Tota Italia.

p.277. n.2.  "What has changed you? Because I lie with a queen? She is my wife. Is this a new thing with me, or have I not done so for these nine years? And do you take freedom with Drusilla only? My congratulations, if, when you read this letter, you have not bedded Tertullia, or Terentilla, or Rufilla, or Salvia Titisenia,-  or all of them. Does it really matter to you where, or upon whom, you perform the sexual act? (Suetonius: Divus Aug. 69, 2.)

           n.3.  " ... shortly before the battle of Actium he vomited up that book." (Pliny the Elder: NH 14, [50], 148 re. M. Antonius.) 

p.278. n.2.  "Domitius did not openly attempt any revolutionary measures, as he had experienced many disasters." (Dio: 50, 2, 3.)

p.281. n.4a. " ... because of some personal quarrel with him or anger against Cleopatra." (Dio: 50, 3, 2 re. Plancus.)

            n.4b. " ... for money (he was prepared to do) all things for all men." (Velleius: 83, 2 re. Plancus.)  

p.282. n.1.  " ... and to begin with he read its contents through by himself, and marked certain reprehensible passages ... " (Plutarch: Antonius 58, 3.)

p.283. n.4.  "This caused the Romans, in their indignation, to believe that the other reports in circulation were also true, to the effect that if Antonius should prevail, he would bestow their city upon Cleopatra, and transfer the seat of power to Egypt." (Dio: 50, 4, 1.)   

p.284. n.2a.  "The frog, too, on the seal of Maecenas, was held in great terror by reason of the monetary imposts which it announced. At a later period, with a view to avoiding the sarcasms relating to the Sphinx, Augustus made use of a signet ring with a figure of Alexander the great upon it." (Pliny the Elder: NH 37, 10, [4].)

           n.2b. "In provisions for the legions." (ILS 5531.)

           n.3.  "Whither, impious men, are you rushing?" (Horace: Epodes 1, 7, 1.)

          n.4.  "The whole of Italy voluntarily took an oath of allegiance to me and demanded that I should be its leader in the war in which I was victorious at Actium." (Res Gestae 25.)

p.285. n.3. " ... attempted to conquer Italy with the help of his dependants." (Suetonius: Tib. 2, 2 re. Claudius the Censor.)

           n.4a. " ... by means of the allies and the name of the Latins." (Sallust: BJ 42, 1.)

           n.4b. " ... men of the Latin name and Italian allies." (Sallust: BJ 40, 2.) 

           n.5a. " ... and with the agreement of the whole of Italy." (Florus: 2, 5, 1.)

           n.5b. " ... the gatherings and conspiracies." (Livy: Per. 71.)

        n.6.  " ... vows on his behalf offered publicly throughout Italy." (Auctor de vir. illustr. 12. N.B. This reference seems incorrect.) 

p.286. n.1.  "   since almost the whole of Italy has carried me back on its shoulders." (Cicero: Post re. in sen. 39.)

p.287. n.1.  "(Did) Crassus' soldiers (live in dishonour) with barbarian wives?" (Horace: Odes 3, 5, 5.)

          n.2.  "Resting on his well-earned laurels, he made no attempt to win fresh ones, but relied on the glory of his surname 'the Great'." (Lucan: Pharsalia 1, 134 f.)

p.288. n.1. "Because on that day Imperator Caesar, the son of the god, freed the state from its very grave danger." (Augustan calendar.)

           n.3.  "It is the will of my mind that I shall be an enemy of those, whom I know to be enemies of Gaius Caesar Germanicus (i.e. Caligula), and, if anyone brings or shall bring danger to him or to his security, I shall not cease to pursue him with arms in all-out war on land and sea until he shall pay the penalty for this, nor shall I hold either myself or my children dearer than his safety." (ILS 190,ll. 5-11.)   
    p.291. n.1.  " 'My services to Antonius,' he replied, 'are too great, and his kindnesses to me too well-known; accordingly, I shall hold aloof from your quarrel and shall be a prize of the victor.' " (Velleius: 2, 86, 4 re. Pollio.)

p.292. n.7.  " ... (wishing) that they would cooperate with him, and to keep the others from beginning a rebellion, as they might if left to themselves, but chiefly with the purpose of showing to all the world that he had the largest and strongest element among the Romans on his side." (Dio: 50, 11, 5.)

p.293. n.1. "On one side was Augustus Caesar leading Italians into battle, having with him the Senate and people, the household gods and the great gods (of the race)." (Virgil: Aen. 8, 678 f.)


Chapter XXXI.  Dux.p.296. n.7.  "Standing on his high quarter-deck, his brows give forth joyful beams of light and his father's satr is revealed on his head." (Virgil: Aen. 8, 680 f.)

p.298. n.1.  " ... and, O shame, there follows an Egyptian wife." (Virgil: Aen. 688.)

p.299. n.2.  "More fiercely defiant, her death having been decided on by herself, and, being no humble woman, doubtless grudging the ruthless Liburnians that she be conducted as a private person in a haughty triumph." (Horace: Odes 1, 37, 29 ff. re. Cleopatra.)

            n.4.  "And as the victor I spared all citizens who sued for pardon." (Res Gestae 3.)  

           n.5.  "But the greatest clemency was shown in the victory; no one was put to death and few banished, and these being those who could not even bring themselves to become suppliants." (Velleius: 2, 86, 2.)

p.300. n.2.  "Canidius perished, showing greater fear than was consistent with the utterances which he had always made." (Velleius: 2, 87, 3.)

             n.4a. "I added Egypt to the empire of the Roman people." (Res Gestae 27.)

             n.4.b. "Egypt, which was brought under the power of the Roman people." (ILS 91.)

            n.5.  "Gaius Cornelius Gallus, Roman knight, he first prefect of Alexandria and Egypt after the kings, who had been defeated by Caesar, the son of the god." (ILS 8995 Philae.)

p.304. n.1.  "to graft tradition on to peace, to show mercy to the conquered, and to war down the proud." (Virgil: Aen. 6, 852 f.)

            n.3.  "In general the Roman empire was enriched and their temples were adorned." (Dio: 51, 17, 8.)

            n.4.  " ... and to each citizen his property rights were now assured." (Velleius: 2, 89, 4.)

            n.5.  "At least do not forbid the young man to repair all fallen generation." (Virgil: Georgics 1, 500 f.) 

p.305. n.1.  "And then shall be born, of proud descent from Roman Troy, one Caesar, to bound his lordship by Ocean's outer stream and his fame by the starry sky, a Julius, his name handed down from great Julus. One day you, freed from anxieties, will welcome in heaven this man laden with the spoils of the East; he also shall be invoked in prayers. Then, with wars having been laid aside, over fierce age will grow mild. Silver-haired Homer and Vesta and Quirinus with his brother Remus will give us laws." (Virgil: Aen. 1, 286 ff.)

           n.6.  "Troy has fallen, and allow it, together with its name, to stay fallen." (Virgil: Aen. 12, 828.)

p.307. n.1. "In my sixth and seventh consulship, after I had extinguished the flames of civil war, and having received by universal consent the absolute control of affairs, I transferred the republic from my own control to that of the Senate and Roman people." (Res Gestae 34.)

           n.3.  "and as victor was giving laws among willing people." (Virgil: Georgics 4, 561 f.)

p.308. n.2.  " ... if he had been the general in supreme command. (Dio: 51, 24, 4 re. M. Licinius Crassus.)

p.309. n.2.  "The Senate voted unanimously that he should be convicted in the courts, exiled, and deprived of his estate, that this should be given to Augustus and that they themselves should offer sacrifices." (Dio: 53, 23, 7 re. C. Cornelius Gallus.) 

           n.3.  " ... on account of his ungrateful and spiteful nature." (Suetonius: Divus Aug. 66, 2. re. Gallus.)

         n.4.  " ... his army having been conducted beyond the cataract of the Nile, to which region no arms had been brought previously either by the Roman people or by the kings of Egypt, although the district around Thebes had been subdued by a common dread of all kings." (ILS 8995, ll. 4 ff.)

p.310. n.1.  " ... the charge of a friendship having been violated." (Ovid: Amores 3, 9, 63.)

p.311. n.2.  " ... from the excessive power of leading citizens." (Cicero: De re publica 1, 68.)

           n.3.  " ... absolute power and quite a principality." (Cicero: Phil. 11, 36.)

           n.4.  "O greatest of leading citizens." (Horace: Odes 4, 14. 6.)



Chapter XXII.  Princeps.

p.313. n.1.  " ... while he accepted all the care and oversight of public business on the grounds that it required someone's attention." (Dio: 53, 12, 1.)

p.314. n.1.  " ... (signifying) that he was something more than human." (Dio: 53, 16, 8.)

           n.3.  " ... all the parts that had the need of a military guard." (Strabo: p.840, [Bk. 17. xvii. 34. 25.])

p.315. n.2.  " ... the power of magistrates was reduced to its former limits." (Velleius: 2, 89, 3.)

p.316. n.1.  "But our constitution did not spring from the genius of one man but from that of many; and it was established, not in the lifetime of one man, but in the course of several centuries and ages." (Cicero: De re publica 2, 2.)

           n.2.  "By the passage of new laws I restored many of the traditions of our ancestors which were then falling into disuse, and I myself set precedents in many things for posterity to imitate." (Res Gestae 8.) 

            n.4.  " ... when called upon to restore the state to health." (Appian: BC 2, 28.)

            n.5.  " ... so that you should know him as a health-giving rather than a popularity-seeking first citizen." (Suetonius: Divus Aug. 42, 1.)

p.317. n.1.  "Gnaeus Pompeius was then elected consul for the third time to reform public morals, but, in applying remedies more terrible than the evils and repealing the legislation of which he had himself been the author, he lost by arms what he had by arms been maintaining." (Tacitus: Ann. 3, 28.)

           n.2. "Adolescent butcher." (Val. Max.: 6, 2, 8 re. Pompey.)

           n.3. "Custom or law there was none." (Tacitus: 3, 28.)

         n.6.  "And you, who traces your descent from Olympus, be you the first to fling down the weapons from your hands, O you man of my blood." (Virgil: Aen. 6, 834 ff. re. Julius Caesar.)

           n.7.  "and in a place apart were the righteous with Cato giving them laws." (Virgil: Aen. 8, 670.)

p.319. n.3.  "Since this constitution has been established with such great wisdom and moderation by our ancestors I have nothing, or at least not much, which I know should be changed in our laws." (Cicero De legibus 3, 12.)

p.320. n.1a. "Whoever does not wish the present dispensation of the state to be changed is both a good citizen and a good man." (Macrobius: 2, 14, 18.)

           n.1b. " ... preferring any government whatever to no government at all." (Plutarch: Pompeius 54, 4.)

         n.1c. "In the first place, guard vigilantly the established laws and change none of them; for what remains fixed, even though it be inferior, is or advantageous than that which is subject to innovations, even though it seems to be superior." (Dio: 53, 10, 1.)

           n.2.  " 'May it be permitted to me to have the happiness of establishing the commonwealth on a safe and sound basis, and thus enjoy the reward which I seek, that of being celebrated as the author of he best possible constitution, and of carrying with me, when I die, the hope that these foundations which I have laid for its government will remain secure." (Suetonius: Divus Aug. 28, 2.)

          n.3.  " ... and indeed he achieved his wish, while striving to avoid by every means any new political circumstance." (Suetonius: Divus Aug. 28, 2.)

            n.4.  " ... and of a world subdued, except for Cato's unforgiving soul." (Horace: Odes 2, 1, 23 f.)

          n.5.  "for it is better to rule no man than to be the slave to any man: since one may live with honour without ruling,whereas life is no life for the slave." (Quintilian: 9, 3, 95.)

           n.6.  " ... liberty, which does not consist of slavery to a just master, but of slavery to no master at all." (Cicero: De re publica 2, 43.)

p.322. n.1.  "After that time I took precedence over all in rank, but of power I possessed no more than those who were my colleagues in any magistracy." (Res Gestae 34.)

p.323. n.1.  "Yet this state had been organised neither under the name of a kingdom nor a dictatorship, but under that of a chief citizen." (Tacitus: Ann. 1, 9.)

         n.2. " ... then, dropping the name of triumvir, and giving out that he was a consul, and was satisfied with a tribune's authority for the protection of the people, he won over the soldiers with gifts, the populace with cheap corn, and all men with the sweets of peace, and so grew greater by degrees" (Tacitus: Ann. 1, 2.)

        n.3.  "In his sixth consulship Caesar Augustus, feeling secure in his power, annulled the decrees of his triumvirate, and gave us a constitution which might serve us in peace and under a chief citizen. After that our chains became more galling." (Tacitus: Ann. 3, 28.)

p.324. n.1.  " ... for it was from this time that a monarchy, strictly speaking, was established." (Dio: 53, 17, 1.)

p.326. n.3a. "The more important provinces, which could be entrusted to annual magistrates with ease or safety, he reserved for his own administration." (Suetonius: Divus Aug. 47, 1.)

        n.3b. " ... while he retained the more powerful provinces, alleging that they were insecure and precarious and either had enemies on their borders or were able on their own account to instigate a serious revolt." (Dio: 53, 12, 2.)

p.327. n.1.  " ... but the provinces have been divided in different ways at different times, though at the present time they are as he has arranged them." (Strabo: p.840 [Bk 17, 3, 25.])


Chapter XXIII.  Crisis in Party and State.

p.332. n.6.  "Luxurious ways" and "cruelty". (Dio: 54, 5, 1 re. P. Carisius.)

p.333. n.2. " ... they were afterwards exempt even from brigandage." (Velleius: 2, 90, 4.)

           n.5.  " ... since he was immoderate and unrestrained in his outspokennesss to all alike." (Dio: 54, 3, 4 re. A. Terentius Varro Murena.)

p.334. n.1. "Yet there were those who hated this most fortunate state of affairs. For example, Lucius Murena and Fannius Caepio, men quite diverse in character (for Murena, apart from this act might have passed as a man of good character, while Caepio, even before this, had been one of the worst) had entered upon a plot to assassinate Caesar, but, having been seized by state authorities, suffered by law what they had wished to accomplish by violence." (Velleius: 2, 91, 2.)

          n.4.  "May Proculeius, his span of life having been extended, live on, renowned for his paternal spirit towards his brothers." (Horace: Odes 2, 2, 5 f.)

p.335. n.4.  "Which of the gods shall the people invoke to bolster the fortunes of our collapsing state?" (Horace: Odes 1, 2, 25 f.)

p.336. n.1.  " ... these present times, in which we can endure neither our vices nor our remedies." (Livy: Praef 9.)

           n.2.  " ... once and for all and for life." (Dio: 53, 32, 5.)

        n.5. " ... now Agrippa was sent as a successor to Caesar in the countries beyond the Ionian sea." (Josephus: AJ 15, 350.)

p.339. n.5.  " ... who will establish a golden age in Latium once more." (Virgil: Aen. 6, 792 f.) 

p.342. n.1a. " ... would almost outdo a woman in giving himself up to indolence and soft luxury." (Velleius: 2, 88, 2 re. C. Maecenas.)

           n.1b. "A man's speech is just like his life." (Seneca: Epp. 114, 4 ff [1]])

           n.4.  " ... the daily repulses of his wayward wife." (Seneca: Dial. 1, 3, 10 re. Maecenas and Terentia.)

           n.7.  " ... the shameful banishment of Agrippa." (Pliny the Elder: NH 7, 149.)

p.343. n.1.  "for through concord even small states are increased, but through discord even the greatest fall to nothing." (Sallust: BJ 10, 6.)

p.344. n.1.  " ... well disciplined in obedience, but to one man alone, yet eager to command others." (Velleius: 2, 79, 1 re. M. Vipsanius Agrippa.)

            n.6a. " .. very wearisome servitude." (Pliny the Elder: NH 7, 46.)

            n.6b. " ... the wretched and burdensome servitude forced upon him." (Suetonius: Tib. 24, 2.)

            n.6c. " ... honoured servitude." (Aelian: Varia historia 2, 20.)

p.345. n.1. "Ulysses in a lady's gown." (Suetonius: Caligula 23 re. Livia.)

p.347. n.1. "For great tasks require great helpers." (Velleius 2, 127, 2.)

p.348. n.1a. "But, as things are, since you would be governing this vast world, it is imperative that you should have many assistants." (Dio: 52, 8, 4.)

           n.1b. "their associates in power." (Dio: 53, 19, 3.) 


Chapter XXIV.  The Party of Augustus.

p.349.  n.1.  "The revision of the Senate, while not too drastic, was not lacking in severity." (Velleius: 2, 89, 4.)

p.351. n.1.  "Who then are they? Every good man. If you ask what are their numbers, they are innumerable. For, if they were not, we could not stand. They are the chief men of the public council; they are those who follow their school, they are the men of the highest orders of the state to whom the senate-house is open; they are the citizens of the municipal towns and the Roman citizens who dwell in the country; they are the men engaged in business; there are even some freedmen of the best party. The number, as I have said, of this party is scattered in different directions; but the entire body (to prevent all mistakes) can be described and defined in a few words. All men belong to the best party, who are not guilty of any crime, nor wicked by nature, nor madmen, nor men embarrassed by domestic difficulties." (Cicero: Pro Sestio 97.)

p.352. n.1.  " ... yet its very equality is unfair, inasmuch as it allows no gradations of rank." (Cicero: De re publica 1, 43, [27].)

p.353. n.4.  "He was promoted by the favour of the divine emperor Augustus from the lowest position in the military service to the highest military ranks, and was made wealthy by the most fruitful of their money-making opportunities." (Val. Max.: 7, 8, 6 re. T. Marius of Urvinum.) 

p.354. n.1.  " ... a knight created through bloodshed." (Ovid: Amores 3, 8, 10, [7].)

p.356. n.3a. "Titus Junius, son of Decimus, Ani. Montanus, military tribune for six years, commander of the cavalry for six years, commander of the engineers for two years, acting legate for two years." (see B. Saria 1937.)

p.356. n.3b. "Military tribune of the Tenth Legion Geminae in Spain for sixteen years." (ILS 2707.) 

           n.5a. "Commander of the cavalry and acting legate." (ILS 2677.)

           n.5b. "Military tribune and acting legate." (ILS 2678.)

p.358. n.2. "and she, to whom Augustus was an uncle, Tiberius a father-in-law and whose children came from Drusus, sullied herself, her ancestors and her descendants with a provincial paramour." (Tacitus: Ann. 4, 3 re. Livilla and Sejanus.)

           n.4.  " ... of Gaius Proculeius and certain persons of a singularly quiet life who were not entangled in any political schemes." (Tacitus: Ann. 4, 40.) 

p.359. n.3.  "Indeed, by a fresh practice, both my grandfather Augustus and my uncle Tiberius Caesar wished the prime offspring of colonial settlements and of municipal towns in all parts, and, no doubt, of good and wealthy men to be in this senate." (ILS 212.)

p.360. n.2. "Destined in the case of soldiers of the same Caesar Augustus for the highest positions in the equestrian order and then in the superior order." (ILS 2682.)

           n.4.  " ... those small-town monsters." (Florus: 2, 6, 6.)

p.361. n.1. " ... son of Scaeva and Flavia, grandson of Consus and Didia, great-grandson of Barbus and Dirutia." (ILS 915 re. P. Paquius Scaeva of Histonium.) 

          n.4.  " ... from the town of Ferentium, from an old and distinguished family and from Etruscan royalty." (Suetonius: Otho 1,1.)

p.363. n.4.  "He became the first senator among all the Paeligni and won these honours." (ILS 932 re. Q. Varius Geminus.)

p.364. n.3.  "Nor is it a new fashion on the part of the Senate and the Roman people to regard as noblest that which is best." (Velleius: 2, 128, 1.)

p.365. n.1a. " ... the leading men from all the nations." (Dio: 52, 19, 3.)

           n.1b. " ... men of the noblest descent, the best qualities and the greatest wealth." (Dio: 52, 19, 2.)

        n.2. "They frequently left their kingdoms, laid aside their badges of royalty, and assuming the toga, attended and paid their respects to him daily, in the manner of clients." (Suetonius: Divus Aug. 60, [58].)  

p.366. n.1.  " ... and he treated them all with the same consideration as if they were members and parts of the empire." (Suetonius: Divus Aug. 48.)

.p.367. n. 1.  " ... their descendants are still among us." (Tacitus: Ann. 11, 24.)


Chapter XXV.  The Working of Patronage.

p.371. n.2.  " ... adopting the rigorous regime of the older consuls, he pursued a policy of old-fashioned security. (Velleius: 2, 92, 2 re. C. Sentius Saturninus.)

p.374. n.5.  " ... and he bestowed honours with regard to noble ancestry, military renown, or brilliant accomplishments as a civilian." (Tacitus: Ann. 4, 6. re. Tiberius.)

          n.6.  " ... as, for instance, in the competition for public offices, some of the basest men are preferred, on account of their noble birth, to industrious men of no family, and that for good reasons." (Seneca: De ben. 4, 30, 1.)

p.375. n.1.  "the new disease." (Seneca the Elder: Controv. 2, 4, 11.)

n.377. n.1.  " ... descended from a famous rather than a high-born family." (Velleius: 2, 1117, 2 re. P. Quinctilius  Varus.) 

          n.3.  " ... but the Messalae must pardon me if I remark that to lay a claim, though an untruthful one, to the statues of illustrious men shows some love for their virtues ... " (Pliny the Elder: NH 35, 8.)

P.378. n.1.  "Appius, though he was both blind and old, managed four sturdy sons, five daughters, a great household and many dependants." (Cicero: Cato maior [de senectute] 37 [11].)

p.381. n.5a. " ... and was the first to pile up the wealth which that hose enjoyed to a boundless extent." (Tacitus: Ann. 3, 30 re. L. Volusius Saturninus.)

          n.5b. " ... to have borne poverty with a good grace, then to have attained great wealth, which had been blamelessly acquired and modestly enjoyed. " (Tacitus: Ann. 4, 44 re. Cn. Cornelius Lentulus.)

            n.7.  " ... nor were these presents made by a prodigal potentate, but treasures which had descended to her from her grandfather and which had been obtained by the spoliation of the provinces." (Pliny the Elder: NH 9, 117, [58E/63L] re. Lollia Paulina.)

p.385. n.2.  " ... the company of his foremost audience", i.e. the whole inner circle of his court.(Seneca: De clem. 1, 10, 1.)


Chapter XXVI.  The Government. 

p.388. n.2.  " ... for now had been divulged the secret of the empire, that emperors could be made elsewhere than at Rome." (Tacitus: Hist. 1, 4.)

p.391. n.1.  "Under the Emperor Caesar Augustus and the propraetor Lucius Tarius Rufus, the Tenth Legion Fretensis built this bridge." (L' ann. ep., 1933, 85.)

         n.4.  "The tribes of the Pannonians, to whom no army of the Roman people had ever penetrated before my principate, having been subdued by Tiberius Nero, who was then my stepson and my legate, I brought under the sovereignty of the Roman people, and I pushed forward the frontier of Illyricum as far as the bank of the river Danube." (Res Gestae 30.)

p.392. n.1.  "Since you, (O Caesar) alone sustain our concerns, as many and as great as they are, protect the interests of Italy with your arms, and embellish us with your morals ... " (Horace: Epp. 2, 1, 1 f.)

p.395. n.3.  "despatched from his right hand and with his recommendation." (OGIS 458 II, l.45 re. Paullus Fabius Maximus.)

p.396. n.1a. "military men." (Sallust: BC 45, 2 re. L. Valerius Flaccus and C. Pomptinus.)

          n. 1b. " ... an especially brave man, skilled both in warfare and military science." (Cicero: In Pisonem 54 [23] re. Q. Marcius Crispus.) 

           n.4.  " ... being a military man, he had served in the army with great renown for more than thirty years, as tribune, prefect, legate or praetor. " (Sallust: BC 45, 2 re. M. Petreius.)

p.403. n.3.  "... curators of the sacred shrines and of the buildings in public places." (ILS 5939 ff.) 

p.404. n.5a. " ... the respectable section of the people connected to the great households." (Tacitus: Hist 1,4.)
          n.5b. " ... the degraded populace, frequenters of the arena and the theatre." (Tacitus: Hist. 1, 4.)

p.405. n.3.  " the hallowed Lucius Munatius (BCH xii (1888), 15 (Mylasa in Caria) re. Plancus.)


Chapter XXVII.  The Cabinet.

p.406.  n.3a. "proconsul again outside the lot, by the authority of Augustus Caesar, and having beens ent by senatorial decree in order to settle the situation in the rest of the province of Cyprus. (ILS 915 re. P.Paquius Scaeva.)

          n.3b. "despatched from his right hand and with his recommendation." (OGIS 458 II, l.45 re. Paullus Fabius Maximus.)

            n.4.  "I think that those about to take charge of the province of Crete and Cyrene will do the job well and fittingly." (Cyrene Edicts 1, l.13. f.)

p.407. n.1.  "But, after this time, most of the things that happened began to be kept secret and concealed, and even though some things are perchance made public, they are distrusted because they cannot be verified; for it is suspected that everything is always said and done with reference to the wishes of the men in power at the time and of their associates." (Dio: 15, 19, 3.)

p.408. n.1. "from the recommendation of the council which was drawn by lot from the Senate." (Cyrene Edicts V, l.87.)  

         n.3.  "Besides his old friends and intimate acquaintances, he required the assistance of twenty of the most eminent citizens of the state as counsellors in the administration of public affairs." (Suetonius: Tib. 55.)

p.409. n.1.  "that most debased of prayers," namely "all is well, while my life remains." (Seneca: Epp. 101, 10-11 re. Maecenas.)

       n.2.  "But beneath all this was a vigorous mind, equal to the greatest labours, the more active in proportion to the show he made of sloth and apathy." (Tacitus: Ann. 3, 30 re. C. Sallustius Crispus.)

p.410. n.2.  "Publius Vedius, the son of Publius Pollio, (constructed this temple) in honour of Augustus and the colony of Beneventum." (ILS 109.)

p.411. n.4.  "The master of the Arval Brethren." (CIL 1., p.214 f. re. Cn. Domitius Calvinus.)

p.413. n. 2a. "None of these things would have happened to me if either Agrippa or Maecenas had lived." (Seneca: De ben. 6, 32. 2..)

         n.2b. "But we have no reason for supposing that it was the habit of Agrippa or Maecenas to tell him the truth; indeed, if they had lived they would have been as great dissemblers as the rest." (Seneca: De ben. 6, 32, 4.) 

p.416. n.2.  " ... in order that his own glory might not stand in the way of these rising young men at the beginning of their careers." (Velleius: 2, 99, 1 re. Tiberius and Gaius and Lucius Caesares.) 

       n.3.  "In this way he sought to check the perverse ambitions of others; at the same time he had confidence in Nero's (i.e.Tiberius') moderation and in his own greatness." (Tacitus:Ann. 3, 56.)

p.417. n.1.  " ... wrath, hypocrisy and secret sensuality." (Tacitus: Ann.1, 4 re. Tiberius.)

          n.3.  " ... and, before they had yet laid aside the dress of boyhood, he had most fervently desired, with an outward show of reluctance, that they should be called princes of the youth." (Tacitus: Ann. 1, 3.)  

p.418. n.1.  " ... now prince of the young, but in the future prince of the old." (Ovid: Ars Am. 1, 194. re. Gaius Caesar.)

          n.2.  " ... for, as you see, we have reached our sixty-third year, the climacteric common to all old men. But I pray that however long is the time which is left to me, we shall be able to spend it safely amid the most fortunate circumstances of the republic, and with you behaving bravely and succeeding me in my position." (Gellius: 15, 7, 3 re. Gaius and Lucius Caesares.) 


Chapter XVIII.  The Succession.

p.419. n.1.  "The whole world felt the departure of Nero (i.e. Tiberius) from his post as protector of the city." (Velleius: 2, 100, 1.)

p.420. n.1.  "Tell me, if I alone block your hopes, will Paulus and Fabius Maximus and the Cossi and the Servilii and the great line of nobles, who are not just the representatives of empty names but add distinction to their ancestral portraits, put up with you? (Seneca: De clem. 1, 9, 10 re. Cn. Cornelius Cinna Magnus.)

p.424. n.6. " ... a man of violent temper and devoid of obedience, with an innate arrogance inherited from his father Piso." (Tacitus: Ann. 2, 43. re. Cn. Calpurnius Piso.)

p.425. n.3.  "The son of a great-grandchild or the grandson of a great-grandson of Pompeius Magnus." (ILS 976 re. the son of L. Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus.)

p.426. n.3. " ... who hid his extraordinary depravity behind a stern brow." (Velleius: 2, 100, 5 re. T. Quinctius Crispinus.)

         n.4.  " ... a man of shrewd understanding and a perverse eloquence." (Tacitus: Ann. 1, 53 re. Ti. Sempronius Gracchus.)

            n.7.  ". ... that she had been accessible to scores of paramours, that she had roamed about the city in nocturnal revels, that the very forum and the rostrum, from which her father had proposed a law against adultery, had been chosen by his daughter for her debaucheries, that she had resorted daily to the statue of Marsyas, and, laying aside the role of adultress, sold her favours there, and sought the right to every indulgence, even with an unknown paramour." (Seneca: De ben. 6, 32, 1 re. Julia the Elder.)

          n.8.  " ... measuring the magnitude of her fortune only in terms of licence to sin, setting up her own caprice as a law unto itself." (Velleius: 2, 100, 3.)

p.427. n.2.  "her persistent adulterer." (Tacitus: Ann. 1, 53 re. Ti. Sempronius Gracchus.)

p.429. n.3. " ... sinister designs and those revealing a crafty and deceitful mind." (Velleius: 2, 102, 1 re. M. Lollius.)

         n.4a. " ... quick to punish the fraud of avarice and keeping clear of money that attempts to gather all things into its clutches." (Horace: Odes 4, 9, 37 re. Lollius.)

          n.4b. " ... under his legate Marcus Lollius, a man who was ever more eager for money than for honest action, and of vicious habits despite his excessive efforts at concealment." (Velleius: 2, 97, 1.)

           n.5. "the disasters of Lollius." (Velleius: 2, 97, 1.)

         n.6.  " ... he had also paid court to Tiberius, then living at Rhodes." (Tacitus: Ann. 3, 48 re. P. Sulpicius Quirinius.)

p.430. n.1. " ... while he censured Marcus Lollius, whom he charged with encouraging Gaius Caesar in his perverse and quarrelsome behaviour." (Tacitus: Ann. 3, 48.)

          n.4.  " ... his mind began to be of less service to the state. Nor was there lacking the companionship of persons who encouraged his defects by flattery." (Velleius: 2, 103, 3-4 re. Gaius Caesar.)

p.431. n.1.  " ... since a cruel fate has deprived me of my sons Gaius and Lucius." (Suetonius: Tib. 23.)

         n.2.  "On that day there sprang up once more in parents the assurance of safety for their children, in husbands of the sanctity of marriage, in owners of the security of their estates, and in all men the assurance of safety, order, peace and tranquillity, such that it would have been hard to entertain greater hopes, or to have had them more happily fulfilled." (Velleius: 2, 103, 5.)

         n.4. " ... despatched him to Germany, where, three years before, an extensive war had broken out in the governorship of that illustrious man, your grandfather Marcus Vinicius, and it had been waged by him successfully in some places, and the enemy had been successfully checked in other places." (Velleius: 2, 104, 2.)

p.432. n.5.  " ... but devoid of any god qualities and having only brutal bodily strength. " (Tacitus: Ann. 1. 3 re. Agrippa Postumus.)

p.433. n.1.  "Quinctilius Varus, give me back my legions!" (Suetonius: Divus Aug. 23, 2.)

          n.4.  " ... in name and fortune nearest to the Caesars." (Velleius: 2, 114, 5 re. M. Aemilius Lepidus.)

p.435. n.4.  " ... who had already been a legate of his father's (i.e. of Augustus) in Germany." (Velleius: 2, 105, 1 re. C. Sentius Saturninus.)

p.436. n.4a. "Of this man all must think and say that his character was an excellent blend of firmness and gentleness." (Velleius: 2, 98, 1 re. L.Calpurnius Piso.)

          n.4b. "Lucius Piso, the prefect of the city, was drunk from the time he was first appointed." (Seneca: Epp. 83, 14.)

          n.6.  " ... he was a man of illustrious descent and of a lively old-age." (Tacitus: Ann. 6, 27 re. L. Aelius Lamia.)

         n.7. " a man of authority and moderation, but soaked and steeped in wine. (Seneca: Epp. 83, 15 re. Cossus Cornelius Lentulus.)

p.437. n.2. " a few talked in vain about the blessings of freedom, more men dreaded (civil) war, some wanted it." (Tacitus: Ann. 1, 4.)

         n.3.  " ... what fears men had at that time, what trepidation of the Senate, what confusion of the people, what fears of the city with regard to the narrow borderline between security and ruin which we were in, in my hurry I have no time to express, nor can he express it who does have the time." (Velleius: 2, 124, 1.)

p.438. n.3. "The consuls, Sextus Pompeius and Sextus Appuleius, were the first to swear their allegiance to Tibrerius Caesar, and in their presence Seius Strabo and Gaius Turranius, the former the prefect of the praetorian cohorts and the latter the prefect of the corn supply, swore the oath, then the Senate, the military and the people did the same." (Tacitus: Ann: 1, 7)

         n.5.  "Consequently, in a state supported by so many illustrious men they should not confer all powers on one man; many men, by uniting their efforts, would discharge the official duties of the state more easily." (Tacitus: Ann. 1, 11.)

p.439.  n.2.  "but he was never hard-hearted enough to kill any of his kinsfolk, nor was it credible that death had been inflicted on his grandson for the security of his stepson." (Tacitus: Ann: 1, 6.)

         n.3.  "The first death under the new emperor i.e. (Nero), that of Junius Silanus, the proconsul of Asia ... " (Tacitus: Ann. 13, 1)


Chapter XXIX.  The National Programme.

p.440. n.1. "different men rather then different customs." (Tacitus: Hist. 2, 95.)

p.441. n.1. "To these people I fix neither boundaries nor time-limits to their good fortunes: I have given them power without end." (Virgil: Aen. 1, 278 ff.) 

           n.2. "Foreign customs and non-Roman vices." (Seneca: Epp. 83, 25.)
       
           n.3. "You, Roman, remember to rule with authority the peoples of the earth." (Virgil: Aen. 6, 851.)

p.442. n.3.  "The Roman state depends on its ancient customs and its men." (Ennius, quoted by St. Augustine: De civ. Dei 2, 21.)

          n.4.  "Of late, riches have brought in avarice and excessive pleasures, a longing to carry excess and licence to the point of the destruction of everything." (Livy: Praef. 12.)

           n.5.  "My birth gave me laws laid down by my race, nor could I be made more afraid of judgment." (Propertius: 4, 11, 47 ff.)

p.443. n. 1a. "Brave men are born to brave and good men." (Horace: Odes 4, 4, 29.) 

        n.1b. "Yet it is training that promotes inborn talent, and right habits produce strength of character." (Horace: Odes 4, 4, 33 f.)

           n.3.  "The man who is just and tenacious of purpose." (Horace: Odes 3, 3, 1.)

        n.4. "If he seeks the name Father of Cities to be inscribed on his statues, let him venture to check uncontrollable licentiousness, and be renowned to posterity." (Horace: Odes 3, 24, 27 ff.)

p.444. n.2.  "Now Faith and Peace and Honour and old-fashioned modesty and neglected Virtue venture to return." (Horace: Carmen saeculare 57 ff.)

        n.4.  " ... let them check celibacy, let them direct the morals of the people, and let them remove any scandal in the Senate." (Cicero: De legibus 3, 7.)

         n.6.  "Read it in this stone, she was wedded to one man only."(Propertius: 4, 11, 36.)

         n.7.  "She kept house and spun wool." (ILS 8403.)

p.445. n. 1a. "As to these abstract sciences, their value (if they have any) lies principally in exciting and stimulating the abilities of the youth, so  that they may more easily acquire more important accomplishments." (Cicero: De republica 1, 30.[Lat.] / 1, 18 [Eng.])

           n.1b. "We should be neither wiser nor happier on account of this knowledge." (Cicero: De republica 1, 32 [Lat.] / 1, 19 [Eng.])

          n.2.  " ... he would have imbibed a keener love of philosophy than became a Roman and a senator." (Tacitus: Agr. 4, 4.)

p.446. n.4.  "The Roman child has nothing of his father's save the name." (Propertius: 4, 1,37.)

p.447.n.2.  "To whom shall Jupiter assign the task of expiating wickedness?" (Horace: Odes 1, 2, 29 ff.)

        n.3. " ... when he at last was dead who, taking advantage of civil war had seized it for himself." (Res Gestae 10 re. Lepidus.)

          n.5.  "the founder or restorer of every temple." (Livy: 4, 20, 7.)

p.448. n.1. "Rome conquers, with Phoebus keeping faith." (Propertius: 4, 6, 67.)

           n.5. "Our power depends as much on our sense of duty as on steel." (Propertius 3, 22, 21 f.)

          n.6.  "You rule because you carry yourself as inferior to the gods: from this is all your beginning; to this ascribe your ending." (Horace: Odes 3, 6, 5.)

p.449. n.1.  "Next to the immortal gods, he paid the highest honours to the memory of those generals who had raised the empire of the Roman people from its low origin to the highest pitch of grandeur." (Suetonius: Divus Aug. 31, 5.)

          n.2.  "Not marble engraved with inscriptions, through which life and breath return to great leaders after their death." (Horace: Odes 4, 8, 13 ff.)

         n.3.  "Here you will find no sons of Atreus, no Ulysses, inventor of deceitful speech: we are by birth a hardy race." (Virgil: Aen. 9, 602 f.)

          n.4.  " ... cruelly tight circumstances." (Horace: Odes 1, 12, 43.)

          n.5.  "the manly offspring of yeoman soldiers." (Horace: Odes 3, 6, 37.)

          n.6.  "Italian valour" and "a fierce tribe of men." (see Virgil: Georgics 2, 532 ff.)

p.450. n.1. "Let the Roman people be powerful through Italian valour!" (Virgil: Aen. 12, 287.)

        n.2.  "Hail, land of Saturn, mighty mother of produce, mighty mother of men!" (Virgil: Georgics 2, 173.) 

p.451. n.2. "Hardened by sharp military service, let the boy learn to endure pinching poverty." (Horace: Odes 3, 2, 1 ff.)

           n.4.  "The Scythians of the steppes (live) better." (Horace: Odes 3, 24, 9.)

p.452. n.1.  "Not so was it ordained by the example of Romulus, and of bearded Cato, and by the practice of the men of old. (Horace: Odes 2, 15, 10 ff.)

p.454. n.3.  " ... the Romans, the masters of all things and the race that wears the toga." (Virgil: Aen. 1, 282.)

p.455. n.2.  " ... himself of old-fashioned dress and diet." (see Tactitus: Ann. 3, 55 and re. Vespasian.)

         n.3.  " ... or possibly there is in all things a kind of cycle, and there may be moral revolutions, just as there are changes of  seasons." (Tacitus: Ann. 3, 55.)

          n.4. " ... even though you should be a native of Patavium." (Martial: 11, 16, 8.)

        n.5.  "His native place is Brixia, a part of that Italy of ours that still retains and preserves much of the old-fashioned courtesy, frugality and rusticity." (Pliny: Epp. 1, 14, 4.)

p.456. n.2. " ... a man of but moderate position and eager to become notorious by any kind of deed." (Tacitus: Ann. 4, 52 re. Cn. Domitius Afer.)

p.457. n. 6a. " ... the needs of the youth." (Pliny the Elder: NH 7, 149.)

           n.6b. " ... amidst so many difficulties and the war-weariness of the troops." (Suetonius: Tib. 21, 5.)

p.458.  n.1.  "cohorts of volunteers", i.e. freedmen. (Velleius: 2, 110, 7.)

            n.2.  "Fortune does not alter one's birth." (Horace: Epodes 4, 6.)

          n.3.  "Wealth is what is valued now; riches bring honours, riches bring friends: everywhere the poor are hidden." (Ovid: Fasti 1, 217 ff.)



Chapter XXX.  The organization of opinion. 

p.459. n.1. "To our misery, art thou great!" (Cicero: Ad Att. 2, 19, 3 re. Pompeius.)

p.460. n.3.  "He would hear them read their works with a great deal of patience and good nature, and not only poetry and history, but orations and dialogues. He was displeased, however, that anything should be composed about himself save in a grave manner and by men of the most eminent abilities." (Suetonius: Divus Aug. 89, 3.)

p.462. n.1. "This theme will not suit my sportive lyre. Whither, Muse, are you making your way?" (Horace: Odes 3, 3, 69 f.)

           n.2.  "Doubtless insatiate riches grow; yet I know not what is always lacking in the deficient fortune. " (Horace: Odes 3, 24, 62 f.)

          n.3.  "There shall be born, of noble lineage, a Trojan Caesar, to bound his empire at the Ocean and his glory at the stars, a Julius, his name handed down from great Iulus." (Virgil: Aen. 1, 286 ff.)

           n..4.  "Here is the man whom you often hear has been promised to you, here is Augustus Caesar, the son of the God,who will establish again a golden age in Latium." (Virgil: Aen. 6, 791 ff.)

p.463. n.1.  "Of such great effort it was to found the Roman race." (Virgil: Aen. 1, 33.)

           n.2.  " ... but he would be the man who would rule Italy, pregnant with empire and clamorous with the noise of war, and who would hand down a lineage from the high blood of Teucer and subdue the whole world under laws." (Virgil: Aen. 4, 229 ff.)

        n.3.  "The first path to safety, something which you least expect, will be opened up to you from a Greek city." (Virgil: Aen. 6, 96.)

        n.4.  "I see wars, dreadful wars, and the Tiber foaming with much blood." (Virgil: Aen. 6, 86 ff.)

       n.5.  "He will wage a great war in Italy and will crush its fierce peoples, and he will establish customs and city-walls." (Virgil: Aen. 1, 263 f.)

       n.6.  "Nor do I seel the realm for myself, but under equal laws may both unconquered peoples throw themselves into an everlasting compact." (Virgil: Aen. 12, 190 ff.)

         n.7.  " ... Italy's story and the triumphs of the Romans." (Virgil: Aen. 8, 626.)

p.464. n.1. "by an august augury" and " ... as a god, a god's son, the king and father of the Roman city." (Livy: 1, 16, 3.)

p.465. n.4.  "On one side was Augustus Caesar leading Italians into battle." (Virgil: 8, 678.)

p.466. n.1.  "All these miracles give way to Roman lands." (Propertius: 3, 22, 17.)

        n.2.  "If our country's graves at Perusia are known to you (Italy's graveyard in the darkest of times when Roman citizens dealt in war)  and to my especial sorrow, Etruscan dust." (Propertius: 1, 22, 3 ff.)

           n.4.  "Love's the god of peace; and its peace we lovers worship." (Propertius: 3, 5, 1.)

           n.5.  "There will be no soldiers from my blood." (Propertius: 2, 7, 14.)

p.467. n.3. "Every lover's in arms and Cupid holds the fort." (Ovid: Amores 1, 9, 1.)

         n.4.  "For no one in Germany laughs at vice, nor do they call it the fashion to corrupt and be corrupted." (Tacitus: Germ. 19, 3.)

             n.5.  " ... my life is modest, my Muse is playful." (Ovid: Tristia 2, 354.)

p.468.  n.2.  " ... two charges, a poem and an error." (Ovid: Tristia 2, 207.)

          n.3.  "You did not condemn my action by a decree of the Senate, nor was my banishment ordered by a special court." (Ovid: Tristia 2, 131 f.)

p.470. n.2. "Trojan Aeneas, renowned for his piety and his feats of arms." (Virgil: Aen. 6, 403.)

p.471. n.2. " ... this godlike young man." (Cicero: Phil. 5, 43 re. Octavianus.)

p.472. n.1.  "We bestow timely honours on you while you are alive, and swear vows and erect altars due to your divine genius." (Horace: Epp. 2, 1, 15 f.)

           n.2.  "For, since time will demand you as a god and you will return to your seat in the heavens from which you will rule the world, may those who are here through your lot order this earth and reign with their own auspicious votive offerings." (ILS 137.)

p.473. n.7.  "guardian of all the earth and sea." (ILS 9459.)

p.474. n.3.  "the birthday of the god through whom began the good tidings to the world." (OGIS 458, ii, l.40.)

         n.4.  " ... since every part of divine providence ordered our lives, and with zeal and munificence created the most perfect (good) in our lives by producing Augustus ... "  (OGIS 458. ii. l.33 f.) 

p.475. n.1.  " ... tribunes from the state of the Nervii." (Livy: Per. 141.)



Chapter XXXI.  The Opposition.

p.478. n.1.  " ... a Roman colony and part of the army." (Tacitus: Hist. 1, 65 re. Lugdunum.)

p.480. n.2.  " ... an honest face, but a shameless mind." (Sallust: Hist. 2, 16M.)

           n.6.  " ... but it began to be deserved too late." (Statius: Silvae 41, 32.)

p.481. n.1.  " ... the murders at Rome of men such as Varro, Egnatius and Iullus." (Tacitus: Ann. 1, 10.)

          n.2.  "throughout the country all discussion was prohibited, and for this reason many ... " (Tacitus: Hist. 3, 54.)

          n.3.  " ... destroyed his person rather than his speech." (Seneca the Elder: Controv. 2, 4, 13.)

         n.4.  "It is enough for us, if we can prevent anyone from doing us any real mischief." (Suetonius: Divus  Aug. 51, 3.)

p.482.  n.3a. " ... the vehemence of that eager man." (Pliny the Elder: NH 36, 33 re. Pollio.)

         n.3b. " ... that strict and harsh judgment of his and too much anger in his disposition." (Seneca the Elder: Controv. 4, praef. 3.)

p.483. n.1.  " ... but Labeo's incorruptible independence gave him the finer reputation; Capito's obsequiousness secured him the greater imperial favour." (Tacitus: Ann. 3, 75 re. M. Antistius Labeo and C. Ateius Capito.)

            n.6.  "Cicero and the stillness of the Latin tongue should be lamented." (Seneca the Elder: Suasoriae 6, 27.)  

p.484. n.3. "he was a man of such greatness." (Pliny the Elder: NH 7, 148.)

        n.4.  "imperial conciseness." "He cultivated a simple and easy oratorical style, avoiding purple passages, artfully contrived prose rhythms and th stink of far-fetched phrases, as he called them; his main object was to what he thought as plainly as possible." (Suetonius: Divus Aug. 86, 1 re. Augustus and his 'Res Gestae'.) 

       n.5.  "My god, it will turn out badly for the words, unless they follow the sense." (Porphyrio on Horace: Ars Poetica 3, 11.)

p.485. n.2.  " ... through men's ignorance of public affairs, which were now wholly strange to them." (Tacitus: Hist.1, 1.)

           n.3.  "Patavinitas" i.e. a moral and romantic view of history. (Quintilian: 1, 5, 56 re. Livy.)

p.486. n.2. "His poverty was very great,  his disrepute was very great, the hatred of him was very great." (Seneca the Elder: Controv. 10, praef. 44 ff. re. T. Labienus.)

           n.3.  " ... that triumphalist old man." (Seneca the Elder: Controv. 4, praef 2 re. Pollio.)

           n.8.  " ... of lowly origin and wicked lifestyle." (Pliny the Elder: NH 7, 55 re. Cassius Severus.)

p.487. n.2.  "You are quite eloquent, you are quite handsome, you are quite rich; one thing only you are not 'quite' - a good-for-nothing." (Seneca the Elder: Controv. 2, 4, 11 re. Paullus Fabius Maximus.)

          n.5.  "He lamented the civil wars ... he proscribed for all time the sponsors of proscription." (Seneca: Ad Marciam de consolatione 26, 1.) 

         n.7.a. " ... these great intellects passed away." (Tacitus: Hist. 1, 1.)

        n.7.b. "and fine intellects were not wanting to describe the times of Augustus, until they were deterred by growing sycophancy." (Tacitus: Ann. 1, 1.)

        n.7.c. "Good god, because in this age those (burnings of books) have begun the punishment of intellect, by which they have suppressed intellect." (Seneca the Elder: Controv. 10, praef. 7.)

p.488. n.1.  "Thus neither (school) cared for posterity, foe the one was bitterly hostile, the other deeply servile." (Tacitus: Hist. 1, 1.)

           n.2. "He will be loved when he is dead." (Horace: Epp. 2, 1, 14.)

          n.3. "Let us rush headlong and trample on Caesar's enemy, while he lies upon the bank." (Juvenal: 10, 85 f.)

         n.4.  "A man who is stern, yet gay; cheerful but yet strict; busy, yet always seeming to be at leisure. He is one who claims no honours for himself and so acquires every honour, whose estimate of himself is always below that of others, calm in his expression, though his mind is sleeplessly alert." (Velleius: 2, 127, 4  re. L.Aelius Seianus.)

p.489. n.1. " ... among whom the most important in our own age are Virgil, the prince of poets, and Rabirius." (Velleius: 2, 36, 3.) 



Chapter  XXXII.  The Doom of the Nobiles.

p.490. n.1.  "What is the use of your pedigrees?" (Juvenal: 8, 1.)

p.492. n.2.  "But Cassius and Brutus outshone them all from the very fact that their effigies were not to be seen." (Tacitus: Ann. 3, 76.)

        n.4.  "That rich man of praetorian rank, who was renowned for nothing else than his life of leisure." (Seneca: Epp. 55, 2 ff. re. Servilius.)

         n.5.  " ... a man of distinguished rank and ability as an advocate, but of infamous lifestyle." (Tacitus: Ann. 6, 29 re. Mam. Aemilius Scaurus.)

p.493. n.3.  "There he grew up among outcasts who knew nothing of a liberal education, and, after a while, he supported himself in Africa and Sicily by petty trade; but he did not escape the dangers of high rank." (Tacitus: 4, 13 re. Sempronius Gracchus.)

p.494. n.1. " ... of having crept into power through the intrigues of a wife and a dotard's adoption." (Tacitus: Ann. 1, 7 re. Tiberius.)

          n.2.  " ... where the name of exile might be masked under that of a student." (Tacitus: Ann. 4, 44 re. the son of Iullus Antonius.)

p.495. n.1.  "good fortune." (Velleius: 2, 10, 2.)

           n.2a. "the most delightful girl" (Tacitus: Ann. 12, 4 re. Junia Calvina.)

           n.2b. "the golden sheep." (Tacitus: Ann. 13, 1 re. M. Junius Silanus.)

p.497. n.3. "Publius Oppius said about the family of the Lentuli that, since the children were always smaller than the parents, the race would perish by propagation." (Quintilian: 6, 3, 67.)

p.500. n.8.  " ... steeped in the blood of the Lamiae." (Juvenal: 4, 154 re. Domitian.)

p.501. n.3. "Plancus, the greatest political operator before Vitellius." (Seneca: NQ 4, praef. 5.)

           n.5.  "What distinctions will be left for the remnants of our noble houses, or for impoverished senators from Latium?" (Tacitus: Ann. 11, 23.)

p.503. n.3.  "It was well for Verginius to hesitate, coming as he did from an equestrian family with an unknown father." (Tacitus: Hist: 1, 52.)

p.504. n.4.  " ... he was contriving to save his life by keeping quiet and minding his own business" (Dio: 60, 27, 4 re. M. Vinicius.)

p.507. n.1. "How ready these men are to be slaves." (Tacitus: Ann. 3, 65.)

          n.2.  "No one talks today of the deified  Augustus or the early years of Tiberius." (Seneca: De clem. 1,  1, 6.)

          n.3.  " ... you only know this, that the conqueror must be the worse of the two." (Tacitus: Hist. 1, 50.)

p.508. n.1.  " ... the deeds of the Roman people." (Nepos: Vita Catonis 3, 3.)

       n.3.  " ... nothing can be more agreeable than these books to those who have any desire for a knowledge of the actions of illustrious men ... who each one was, from whom he was sprung, what offices he held and at what time." (Nepos: Vita Attici 18, 4.)

           n.5.  "My labours are circumscribed and inglorious." (Tacitus: Ann. 4, 32.)


Chapter XXXIII.  Pax et Princeps.

p.509. n.1.  "Marcus Agrippa, a great-souled man, who alone among those who the civil wars made famous and powerful, was fortunate in his public life." (Seneca: Epp. 94, 46.)

p.510. n.2. " ... a man of eminent and noble simplicity." (Velleius: 2, 72, 3 re. L. Domitius Ahenobarbus.)

           n.3a. " ... despicable in every aspect of his life." (Suetonius: Nero 5, 1 re, Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus.)

               n.3b. " ... the present Gnaeus Domitius, a young man of the most notable simplicity of life." (Velleius: 2, 10, 2 re. Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus.)

p.511. n.2.  " ... a man of mild character and quiet disposition, as slow in mind as he was in body ... he entered the rich province a poor man, but left a rich man and a poor province." (Velleius: 2, 117, 2 re. P. Quinctilius Varus.)

           n.5.  "Remember to keep a calm frame of mind amidst difficult circumstances." (Horace: Odes 2, 3, 1 f.)

p.512. n.1.  "a traitor by disease." (Velleius: 2, 83, 1 re. Plancus.)

           n.3. " ... it is only ghosts that fight with the dead." (Pliny the Elder: NH praef. 31.)

          n.5.  "Asinius and Messalla, enriched with the prizes of the conflicts between Antonius and Augustus." (Tacitus: Ann. 11, 7.)

           n.7.  " ... not a poor example of vigorous vivacity." (Val. Max: 8, 13, ext.4 re. Pollio.)

p.513. n.1.  "How few were left who had known the republic!" (Tacitus: Ann. 1, 3.)

          n.2.  " ... to strive in ability, to contend in rank, pressing through nights and days with hugest toil for the summits of power and the mastery of the world."  (Lucretius: 2, 11 ff.)

         n.3. " ... for mankind, its lifetime wearied by the cultivation of force, was  ailing from its feuds; and so it all the more readily yielded of its own accord to laws and strict codes." (Lucretius: 5, 1145 ff.)

         n.4.  " ... henceforth our chains became more galling." (Tacitus: Ann. 3, 28.)

p.514. n.1.  "When the earth had been pacified and the republic restored, then we experienced peaceful and prosperous times." (ILS 8393.)

        n.2.  "I may admire an earlier period, but I acquiesce in the present." (Tacitus : Hist. 4, 8 re. Eprius Marcellus.)

p.515. n.1a. "The first discord among us arose from the failings of the human character, which is restless and untameable in its struggle for freedom, or glory, or power." (Sallust: Hist. 1, 7M.)

        n.1b. "Then arose Gaius Marius from the very dregs of the populace, and Lucius Sulla, the most ruthless of the patricians, who perverted into absolute dominion the liberty which had yielded to their arms. After them came Gnaeus Pompeius, with a character more disguised but no better." (Tacitus: Hist. 2, 38.)

           n.3.  "The republic would have continued to exist under Pompeius and Brutus." (Tacitus: Hist. 1, 50.)

          n.5.  "But it is that great and famous eloquence of old which is the nursling of the licence which fools call freedom; it is the companion of sedition, the stimulant of an unruly people, a stranger to obedience and subjection, a defiant, reckless, and presumptuous thing which should  not arise in a well-ordered state." (Tacitus: Dial. 40, 2.)

         n.6.  " ... but there the people, there any ignorant fellow, anybody, in short, could do anything." (Tacitus: Dial. 40, 3.)

          n.7.  " ... so too our own state, while it went astray and wore out its strength in factious strife." (Tacitus: Dial. 40, 4.)

           n.8.  "Still, the eloquence of the Gracchi was not an equivalent to the republic for having to endure their legislation, and Cicero's fame as an orator was a poor compensation for the death he died." (Tacitus: Dial. 40, 4.)

p.516. n.1.  " ... when political questions are decided not by an ignorant multitude but by one man of pre-eminent wisdom." (Tacitus: Dial. 41, 4.)

          n.3.  " ... princes and kings and guardians of the public order, whatever name they bear." (Seneca: De clem. 1, 4, 3.)

        n.4a. "You will have to reign over men who cannot bear either absolute slavery or absolute freedom." (Tacitus: Hist. 1, 16.)

        n.4b. " ... they were subjects of royalty, yet not slaves, and citizens of a democracy without discord." (Dio: 56, 43, 4.)

p.517. n.3. " ... while I pray for good emperors, I can endure whomsoever we may have." (Tacitus: Hist. 4. 8.)
           n.4. "There will be vices, so long as there are men." (Tacitus: Hist. 4, 74.)

           n.5.  " ... while cruel rulers fall upon those nearest to them." (Tacitus: Hist. 4, 74.)

         n.6.  " ... and the end of this city's rule will be the same as the end of her obedience." (Seneca: De clem. 1, 4, 2.)

p.518. n.1.  "Thence I am compelled to doubt whether the liking of princes for some men and their antipathy to others depend, like other contingencies, on a fate and destiny to which we are born, or in some degree on our own plans; so that it is possible to pursue a course between a defiant independence and a debasing servility, free from ambition and its perils." (Tacitus: Ann. 4, 20.) 

        n.3.  "Let it be known to those whose habit is to admire the disregard of authority, that there may be great men even under bad emperors, and that obedience and modesty, if vigour and industry are present, may obtain a glory which most men reach only by a perilous career utterly useless to the state and closed by an ostentatious death." (Tacitus: Agr. 42, 5. re. Agricola under Domitian.)

         n.4.  " ... the strength of the empire is valued, and its empty show is disregarded." (Tacitus: Ann. 15, 31.)

         n.5.  " ... few men desire freedom, the greater part are content with just masters." (Sallust: Hist. 4, 69, 18M.)

         n.6a. " ... never does liberty appear more pleasing than under a pious king." (Claudian: De cons. Stil. 3, 114 f.)

         n.6b. " ... though a state reaches its best condition under a just king." (Seneca: De ben. 2, 20, 2.)

p.519. n.2.  "Guard, preserve, protect the present state of affairs, this peace and this emperor." (Velleius 2, 131, 1.)

       n.3.  "this hallowed leader." (Ovid: Fasti 2, 60.)

      n.4.  " ... may you delight to be called father and first citizen." (Horace: Odes 1, 2, 50.)

      n.5.  "Great guardian of the race of Romulus." (Horace: Odes 4, 5, 1.)

      n.6. " ... guardian of our affairs." (Horace: Odes 4, 15, 16.)

      n.7.  "O resolute guardian of Italy and her mistress, Rome." (Horace: Odes 4, 14, 43 f.)

     n.8.  "They owed to him their lives, and their liberty to sail the seas, in a word their entire freedom and prosperity." (Suetonius: Divus Aug. 98, 2.)

p.520. n.1. "Guardian of the Roman Empire and Governor of the Whole World." (ILS 140 l.7.f.)

      n.2. "on guard." (see E. Kostermann, Philologus LXXXVII [1932], 358 f.)

      n.3. " ... that sinister Romulus." (Sallust: Hist. 1, 55, 5M re. Sulla.)

      n.6.  "O Romulus, divine Romulus, you whom the gods begot to be your country's guardian! O our father, O our progenitor, O offspring sprung from the gods, we beg you to protect us, while you are still among the stars."(Cicero: De re publica 1, 64.) 

    n.7.  " ... while he concentrated in himself the functions of the Senate, the magistrates and the laws." (Tacitus: Ann. 1, 2.)

      n.8.  "For, as in earlier days, Caesar so clothed himself with the powers of the state that neither one could be withdrawn without the destruction of both. For while a Caesar needs power, so the state needs a head." (Seneca: De clem. 1, 4, 3.) 

p.521. n.1. "Legions, provinces, fleets, all things were linked together." (Tacitus: Ann. 1, 9.)

p.522. n.1.  " ... over and above all this, so many troubles were coming together: namely, want of pay for his soldiers, the rebellion in Illyricum, the levying of slaves and bondsmen, the shortage of young men to join the levy, pestilence in the city, famine throughout Italy." (Pliny the Elder: NH 7, 149 [46].)

         n.2.  "Do you think that I have acted my part on the stage of life well." (Suetonius: Divus Aug. 99, 1.)

        n.3.  "To conclude, that same god who has obtained a place in heaven, whether deservedly or not I do not know ... " (Pliny the Elder: NH 7, 150 [46].)

p.523. n.1. " ... and afterwards, when they waged war upon the republic, I twice defeated them in battle." (Res Gestae 2.)

           n.4.  "No sane person should seek the secrets of empire in such a document." (see Mommsen, 1883, p.vii.)