ASPECTS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Introduction

Flight Lieutenant A.W. Panton, M.A. Dip. Ed. served in the Royal Air Force Education Branch from 1970 to 1974. Influenced by the RAF School of Education at RAF Upwood, Ramsey, Hunts, the Branch emphasised the importance of a technological or systematic approach to education. In preparing for his promotion examinations to Squadron Leader in November 1973, Flight Lieutenant Panton prepared notes on the following subjects set out below. These notes give a flavour of the kind of systematic approach which was encouraged within the Education Branch at that time. Where some of the points below may appear opaque, at this distance in time it is not necessarily possible for them to be adequately clarified now.

1.  FACTORS INFLUENCING CHOICE OF INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD

1.  Objectives.  Intended terminal behaviour of students will affect method. Different aspects of instructional task will also involve different methods.

2.  Subject Matter.  Stability of content. Verbal or manipulative? Symbolic or Non-Symbolic? Easy to assimilate or not?  

3.  Target Population.  Class Size. Aptitudes. Experience. Educational level.

4.  Instructional staff.  Numbers. Ability.

5.  Facilities.  Accommodation. Equipment. Aids. 

6.  Time.  Total course time. Time of day.

7.  Costs.  Interlinked with all factors. However investment in one method should offset other costs.

2.  THE CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

1.  Lecture. Pros: speed, large class size; content under control of instructor, versatile. Cons: communication one way, limited sense appeal, passive audience, student reaction hard to gauge, useless for skill teaching. Uses: introductions, general surveys, indicate rules and policies, recapitulation and summaries. 

2.  Demonstration. Pros: dramatic appeal, shows relations between steps, saves time by reducing explanation. Cons: limited class size. Uses: illustration of manipulative skills, operation of equipment, safety procedures and principles.

3.  Student performance. Pros: realistic application of knowledge, student confidence, student participation, reduces wastage through error, method of evaluation. Cons: outlay of equipment and resources. Uses: teaching manipulative skills, operation of equipment, safety drills, teamwork.

4.  Programmed Instruction.  Pros: meticulous preparation ensures effectiveness; self-pacing of students; forced response and immediate feedback guarantee attention, improve retention and eliminate errors; instruction is standardised; frees instructor from routine and repetitive tasks. Cons: difficulty and cost of programme writing; few programmers around; unsuitable for unstable content; self-pacing causes timetabling problems. Uses: free-flow training and instruction; remedial instruction; filling in gaps, consolidation and practice.

5.  Discussion.  Pros: should stimulate; student participation leads to better retention; use of students' knowledge. Cons: difficult to control, take time, require small selected groups. Uses: problem solving, supplement other methods, application of theory to particular situations.

6.  Assignment.  Pros: can reduce need for classroom capacity; capitalise on individual interests, provide a detailed coverage; motivation. Cons: difficulty in defining objectives, hard to evaluate, no use for standardisation. Uses: advance study, provision for student differences, enrichment.

7.  Tutorial Method.  Pros: one-to-one teacher/pupil ratio very effective; student participation; easy to diagnose student needs. Cons: demanding; expensive use of resources. Uses: teaching of highly complex skills, operation of dangerous and expensive equipment.

8.  Seminar.  Pros: student participation, adaptive instruction. Cons: expensive, difficult to evaluate. Uses: guidance in advanced study, exchange of information.

9. Lesson.  Pros: highly flexible, uses many methods, cooperation between instructor and class. Cons: small groups, students have to keep pace with instructor, adults prefer other methods. Uses: elementary levels, novice instructors, practical skills.

10.  Role Playing / Stimulation.  Pros: interest, motivation > retention, realism. Cons: preparation, effects of gaming. Uses: practice in controlled conditions, special training, team training, interest.



3.  METHODS OF MOTIVATING STUDENTS

A.  Extrinsic motivation - involves context factors (Maslow) imposed on task or student by teacher or external agents. Assoc. with Maslow's 3 lower order needs - physiological, safety and belonging, and with Herzberg's hygiene factors. By removing causes of environmental dissatisfaction from environment, teacher can bring student to minimum acceptable level of learning. Methods of extrinsic motivation:

1.  Show purpose of instruction and connection with external goals.

2.  Organise teaching and its institutions well. Sound policy.

3.  Adopt relaxed teaching style.  Warmth of approach > friendship, identification.

4.  Fair distribution of praise and blame. Gives security and order.

5.  Comfortable classroom conditions. Lighting, temperature and ventilation, size of classes, seating, audio-visual aids.

(Connected with McGregor's X Theory of Management.)

B.  Intrinsic motivation - involves content factors (Maslow) inherent in task or student. assoc.with Maslow's 2 higher order needs - esteem  and self-actualisation, and Herzberg's motivators. Such motivation leads to positive results. Methods of intrinsic motivation:

1.  Encourage curiosity and interest. Make use of elements of realism and variety and surprise > interest = self-actualisation.

2.  Use discovery methods. Desires for challenge and autonomy are strong and lead to sense of achievement and recogntion.

3.  Use activity methods.  Encourages desire to express oneself and to take responsible part in a group. Role-playing and discussions.

4.  Proper use of rivalry and competition.  Group competition methods preferable. Competition > confidence, self-respect and esteem.

5.  Set high standards. Demonstrate examples of high craftsmanship. We learn by initiations, and the standards we expect are set by what we see.

(Connected with McGregor's Y Theory of Management.)



4.  THE PURPOSES AND USES OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

A.  General categories (Powell)

1.  Aids which amplify the mechanics of the transmission and reception of sensations: e.g. microphones, projectors (hardware).

2.  Aids which contribute to the teaching/ learning process: e.g. diagrams, models, gramophone records (software).

B.  Functions of AV aids

1.  Invite cooperation and challenge.

2.  Promote perception: by attracting and holding attention.

3.  Promote understanding: supplement verbal information (very important in technical subjects); illustrate relationship between rule and application by directed observation; illustrate relationship between parts of a whole; promote transfer of training; provide reinforcement or knowledge of results.

4.  Promote consolidation: help retention - use of summaries.

C.  General categories of AV materials (Davies)

1.  Criterion materials:  have to be described, interpreted, identified, etc, by student to show that he has learned: e.g. pictures, maps, real objects.

2.  Mediating materials: help students to gain insight or knowledge of phenomena: e.g. diagrams, transparencies, graphs.

D.  General categories of AV media (Davies)

1.  Enrichment media: provision optional.

2. Necessary media: to realise learning task, whether cognitive, affective, or psychomotor: provision obligatory.



5.  USES OF PARTICULAR AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

1.  Chalkboard.  The most important aid for general teaching of cognitive objectives. Can be used for (a) drawings, diagrams, maps, graphs, (b) technical words, key words, definitions, (c) summaries and outlines, (d) problems. Drawing and diagrams should be simple. Complex ones such as circuit diagrams should be given on note-sheets. Chalkboards very versatile and intimate.

2.  Felt Board, Plastigraph Board. Useful alternatives to chalkboard. Can be used with large groups. Display of material the matter of a moment, but less versatile than chalkboard.

3.  Magnetic Boards.  Useful for showing effect of moving shapes to different positions, for traffic problems, work study, and economics problems, etc. Can also be used like chalkboards.

4.  Overhead Projectors. Another alternative to chalkboards. Strong visual appeal. Transparency only has to be prepared once. Overlays can build up picture by degrees. Teacher can write facing class.

 5.  35mm. Slide Projectors. Can show individual slides or film-strips. Greater detail possible than in OHP transparencies. Useful for both cognitive and affective objectives. Tonal range of slide makes them preferable to prints and they have enrichment value.

6.  8mm. Loop Projector. For concept films. Easy to present and to integrate, films on casettes can be replayed, and useful for individual project learning.

7.  16mm. Film Projector. Very important for affective and pyschomotor objectives. Can be used to orientate attitudes or to consolidate learning. Usually films should be shown twice. As they take over from teacher they must have high merit.

8.  Wireless, record-players, tape recorders. Have cognitive and affective value. Tape-recorder has psychomotor value. Tape/slide synchroniser units now available for standard presentations. Sound/slide systems also available. Casettes, like loop films, can be used for individual learning.

9.  3-D models.  Mock-ups, cutaways and large models. Useful for cognitive and, in the case of large models, affective objectives. large models often very expensive.

10.  Television.  Can be used for films, but lacks visual appeal of film projectors. CCTVs and VTRs have tremendous possibilities for training. Video casette recorders also.

11.  Teaching machines. Use programmes. Valuable for remedial and individual learning, e.g. reading. Can incorporate sound and loop films.

12.  Simulators.  Used where training on real equipment is too expensive or dangerous, e.g. emergency landing of aircraft. Represents real situations. Students have control  and conditions can be varied. Not only used for psychomotor skills but also for cognitive (chain and m-d learning) and affective objectives. Difficult to integrate.

13.  Language laboratories. Useful for sequential, cumulative development of language skills, each small skill
building on the last. Weak when used as an adjunct to grammar program.



6.  THE STAGES OF INSTRUCTIONAL PREPARATION

1.  Aim.  The overall aims must be ascertained. Training objectives essential in training. These may be cognitive, affective or psychomotor. Aims may affect content and method.

2.  Objectives.  With academic exams. syllabi and past papers specify content and relative weighting. In training a task analysis is required to give objectives.

3.  Content. This will be derived from objectives minus student knowledge calculated from preliminary test. Relative importance of items must also be decided from past papers or task analysis.

4.  Sequence. Learning must be planned to achieve most effective learning in shortest possible time and to cut out duplication and omission. In skill training logical order comes from job performance. In academic or theory teaching the best psychological order (instructional logic) must be found. This will proceed from what student knows to required knowledge, and from simple to complex. Relationships between objectives that the student must know may be by association or discrimination. Sequence must establish the latter. In sequencing a subject  with a logical or natural order the matrices and flow diagrams of programmed learning are useful.

5.  Criteria.  The most appropriate tests have to be selected. Types of test: essay, MCOQs, short answer questions, practical/manipulative, practical written, oral/aural. Tests should be held (a) when an objective has more than one other objective dependent on it, (b) when concepts or combinations of concepts have to be mastered, (c) often enough for previously learned material not to be forgotten. The characteristics of tests that have to be considered are validity, reliability, ease of preparation and ease of marking. Tests ought to be reliable, valid and compatible with learning situation. In skill training validity and reliability are essential. Essays are valuable when flexibility is required.

6.  Instructional plan. The teaching method then has to be selected. Types available: lesson, lecture, demonstration, student peformance, programmed instruction, discussion, project, tutorial, seminar, simulation. Factors influencing choice: objectives, subject matter, target population, instructional staff, facilities, time, costs. Sense appeal (75% sight, 25% hearing) dictates desirability of certain methods. When method has been determined, time has to be allocated to syllabus items on the basis of total time available, item complexity and student ability.

7.  Resources. The provision of resources then has to be planned: books, paper, AV aids, note handouts, past papers, course plans, etc.

8.  Environment. Classroom or lecture hall has to be available, quiet, light, clean, tidy and have enough chairs. It also has to be suitable for the instructional method selected.



7.  THE PHASES OF LESSON STRUCTURE

A.  The Classroom (Theory) Lesson

1.  Introduction - arouse interest and focus attention. Should provide a motive for learning. Should relate to previous learning. Should list objectives and lead smoothly into development phase.

2.  Development - teaching phase. Should aim to present subject matter in manner most easily absorbed and retained. heavy emphasis on participation by question and answer technique. Any questions? 

3.  Recapitulation - tests recall of what has been learned. Monitors success of development phase. In a lengthy development phase, intermediate recapitulations are advisable.

4.  Application - involves application by students of principles and procedures learned. Could lead into homework, including test of earlier phases.

5.  Conclusion - apart from recapitulation and application, conclusion should allow for student queries, the provision of references and setting of homework, and indication of future lines of instruction.

B.  The Skills Lesson

1.  Introduction - arouse interest and focus attention. should provide motive for learning and and relate to previous learning. Should list objectives and lead smoothly into development phase.This explanatory phase should be 10% of lesson.

2.  Development phase - this involves a demonstration, carrying out the whole procedure step-by-step in the correct job sequence. This phase, which involves both talking and demonstrating, takes up 25% of the lesson. It can include a second demonstration.

3.  Recapitulation - a second demonstration,as above.

4. Application (imitation) - involves student performance, practice of the skills under supervision and appraisal of the students' work. Student practice should take up 65% of lesson.



8.  PROGRAMMED LEARNING: DEFINITION, USES, PROS & CONS

1.  Definition - a form of instruction/ learning, in which the following factors are present: (a) clear statement of the objective; (b) itemised and tested material is presented in frames; (c) students follow a sequence of frames fitted to their individual needs; (d) frequent responses from students are required; (e) immediate feedback is given before the student proceeds to the next frame.

2.  Characteristics - (a) PL is an individual learning process in which students accept a wider measure of responsibility; (b) students proceed at their own rate; (c) it requires an active response from student and provides immediate knowledge of results; (d) student is more often successful and his motivation is thereby increased; (e) subject matter is programmed in such a way as to shape learning in a particular manner.

3.  Uses:

a. Remedial instruction, providing training in infrequently practised skills;

b. Filling in gaps caused by late arrivals and absences.

c. Acceleration of able trainees, permitting early completion;

d. Providing common background for subsequent instruction;

e. Consolidation of learning by practice;

f. Provision  of advanced or broader work in a particular field of study; and

g. As a control in the study of learning situations.

4.  Advantages: (a) pre-testing, self-pacing, forced response and immediate feedback characteristics lower failure rate; (b) they also improve retention rate; (c) elimination of unnecessary material, self-pacing and forced attention cuts time; (d) instruction is standardised; (e) no special facilities are required, except teaching machines where used; (f) can be effective in the absence of an instructor; (g) can meet individual or group needs; (h) can be used for classes of any size; (i) frees instructor from repetitive teaching tasks and frees him to devote time to difficult tasks.

5.  Disadvantages: (a) commercial programmes rarely match particular instructional objectives and have to be prepared locally or by contract; (b) only a few trained programmers are available; (c) programmes are very costly, involving either training of programmer, writing and testing of local programmes, or very costly contracts; (d) unsuitable where subject matter is unstable or subject to radical and frequent change; (e) cause admin. and organisational problems: viz. different completion times causing timetable difficulties, and problems in assigning students to jobs at end of training.



9.  PROGRAMMED LEARNING: LINEAR AND BRANCHED

A.  Linear Programmes

1.  Theory:  stem from instrumental conditioning theory of B.F.Skinner. This has 3-fold process: simplification
> reward > reshaping simple into complex responses. Skinner sees rewards as means of getting repetition of correct responses, and thus means of effective learning.

2.  Implications of theory for programmed learning:

i.  We must proceed in small steps in order to adjust the pace of conditioning to behaviour of individual. Too much too soon will lead to learning breakdown.

ii.  We must move slowly so as not to impose too difficult a discrimination task on student whose capacity at outset is limited.

iii.  We must anticipate difficulties and modify approach, relating it to student behaviour.

iv.  We must not reinforce behaviour incompatible with desired learning.

3.  Characteristics: a body of info. is broken down into a sequence of small steps leading logically through subject. Increments of information that students have to absorb from one frame to another are limited. Common element is discriminative stimuli. The more often a student is correct - wrong answers to be avoided - the more he is motivated. Students write down or construct responses. Skinner believes this deepens thought.

B.  Branched Programmes

1.  Theory:  stems from differential school of psychology, to which Norman Crowder belongs. This school believes that learning occurs by exposing students to new material. Learning occurs in a variety of ways depending on abilities of students and nature of subject.

2.  Characteristics:  Crowder uses responses of student to control order of presentation of material. To attain control he uses MCOQs, though constructed answers could be used. Small steps of linear programmes are considered an insult. More ambitious steps are followed by remedial sequences of frames if necessary. An able student will progress much faster than a weak one.

3.  Purposes of MCOQs:

i.  test understanding;

ii.  to select remedial sequence if response is incorrect;

iii.  practice of concept;

iv.  to keep student working actively;

v.  to motivate student when response is correct.



10.  OBJECTIVES IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING 

1.  Different domains:

a.  Cognitive objectives: information and knowledge;

b.  Affective objectives:  attitudes, values, feelings, emotions;

c.  Psychomotor:  skills involving neuromuscular coordination.

2.  Definitions:  'A precise description of intended terminal behaviour'. 'A training objective written in performance terms is a statement of what the student must DO to show that he has learned; it will contain a statement of the conditions under which the performance must be carried out, and a statement of the conditions under which the performance must be carried out, and a statement of the standards to be achieved'.

3.  Different types of learning objectives:

a.  Training objectives differ from the task analysis to the extent that we can consider on-the-job-training and the value of experience in improving performance.

b.  Course objectives are derived from training objectives by the deduction of the required entry behaviour.

c.  Enabling objectives will define the path to be followed towards the attainment of the terminal objectives.

4.  Defects of traditional syllabi:  a. give no guidance to students or instructors as to conditions or standards; b. cannot be tested save in random fashion; c. list contents only. d. are teacher centred; e. over-training = wastage; under-training = ? danger.

5.  Characteristics of objectives:  a. they are written in behavioural or performance terms, using a precisely worded vocabulary of behavioural verbs; b. include a statement of conditions; c. include a statement of standards; d. synonymous with criterion; e. related to task analysis in the case of training. In the case of education, anything on the syllabus should be capable of justification (N.B. affective objectives cannot be directly tested, but could inform teaching methods.(Performance syllabi are both job-related and student centred).

6.  Advantages: a. instructors are clear about standards; b. students know 'what' they are required to learn and can monitor progress; c. objective testing is possible; d. training is efficient.

7.  An example: 'Given a mild steel block approx. 1/8'' oversize, the student must be able to file it down to specified dimensions within a tolerance of 0.002". All faces must be parallel and square to each other and square to the front face'.



11.  THE SYSTEMS APPROACH TO TRAINING

1.  Elements of training:

a.  Input: body of entrants to be trained to a certain level.

b.  Processing: training carried out in a variety of ways over varying periods and using variety of resources.

c.  Output: a trained body of men.

d.  Feedback: experience gained reflected in future selection standards and form of training.

2.  Functions of Systems Approach: To identify, understand and control the interrelationships of the 4 elements and of the processes of which they are contained.

3.  Process of training:  a. instructional system is a compound of interacting, interdependent process. Weaknesses are attributable to absence or misapplication of these processes or the failure to coordinate them. The main processes are:

a.  Job and behavioural analysis:  the preparation of job specifications on the basis of a task analysis, the job specifications indicating the required performance levels.

b.  Statement of training objectives:  the declaration in behavioural terms of training objectives based on the performance requirements; and the design of criteria by which the effectiveness of training can be assessed in relation to those objectives.

c.  Definition in target population:  the calculation of the standards of skill and knowledge possessed by entrants to training.

d.  Design of the training course:  choosing content and sequence; selecting instructional methods, and designing achievement tests to provide immediate feedback on the effectiveness of training.

e.  Implementation of the training course: the processing of instructors, students, time and resources.

f.  Evaluation of training effectiveness: the establishment of an evaluation system to provide long-term feedback from the field on the effectiveness of the overall training system.

4.  Need for the Systems Approach: only by a thorough understanding of the interrelationships of the training processes can the training be controlled so as to stabilise output regardless of input variables.


                              THE 4 INTERRELATED ELEMENTS OF TRAINING


            >      UNTRAINED STUDENTS      >          TRAINING            >          GRADUATES           >      
      i                    (INPUT)                                (PROCESSING)           i    
      i                                                                            i                           i
      i                                                                            i                           i
      i                                                                            i                           i
      i                                                          <                i                   FEEDBACK                                                                                 



12.  PERSONAL QUALITIES OF THE GOOD INSTRUCTOR


1.  Purpose.  Object clear. Keeps to subject but deals with interesting points. Keeps an eye on the clock.

2.  Cognitive validity. The degree to which a teacher possesses and reflects a valid, systematic cognitive structure of concepts and principles of subject. Skilled demonstration. Knows his staff. Instruction backed by experience.

3.  Care.  Preparation of lesson and materials good. Sense of balance and proportion as to what is covered.

4.  Interesting.  Uses drama in proper places. Introduces variety. Timing.

5.  Enthusiasm.  Keen. Infects class with enthusiasm. (Modelling force.)

6.  Warmth.  At ease. Confident. Pleasant voice. Natural. Be reinforcing. (conditioning and modelling force.)

7.  Control of class. Fair. Firm. Friendly. Respected. See  students' viewpoint.

8.  Manner. Voice.  Stance.  Lack of irritating mannerisms.



13.  QUESTION TECHNIQUE

1.  Functions of oral questions:

a.  To make class think:
   
i)   to rouse curiosity and interest.

ii)  to lead class by logical steps to building up a body of knowledge. Learning can be shaped in this way as in a programme.  

b.  To test and confirm knowledge:

i)   to test the assimilation of initial knowledge and the rate of learning.

ii)   to revise and consolidate at the end of a piece of instruction.

iii)  to evaluate learning and the success of instruction either in the long-term or short-term.

2.  Factors to consider in oral questioning:

a.  Name last.

b.  Spread of questions.

c.  Match questions to ability in order to encourage in order to encourage feeling of participation.

d.  Phrase questions carefully.

e.  Use wrong answers as feedback.

f.  Give praise and encouragement.

g.  No big steps from one question to another.

h.  Answers must be heard. Repeat if necessary.

3.  Questions to avoid:

a.  Questions that lack obvious answers.

b.  Questions which have several equally good answers.

c.  Questions that call for 'Yes' or 'No' as an answer.

d.  Questions that have two possible answers.

e.  Questions that the class cannot answer.

f.  Trick questions.

g. Questions that are mainly tests of the power of expression.



14.  OBJECTIVE TESTING: PROS & CONS

1.  Advantages:

a.  Marking is more rapid and does not require skilled examiners.

b.  No subjective element in assessing answers.

c.  Once constructed, exam. can be given to 1,000s with little difficulty.

d.  Large number of short items enable a sampling of whole syllabus.

e.  Not confined simply to facts but can be used for testing higher order strategies.

f.  Not dependent on candidates' facility in writing essay answers.

g.  Difficulty level consistent from exam. to exam. Pre-testing avoids ambiguity.

2.  Disadvantages.

a.  Construction is very elaborate and involves use of psychologists and need for external validation.

b.  The choice of questions and responses introduces subjective element.

c.  Discrepancies will be found in 2 or more tests on same candidate - attributable to particular choice of questions as well as to variations in candidates.

d.  Appear to be too easy and to involve speed and guessing.

e.  Questions on higher order strategies difficult to construct and artificial, and success in them depends mainly on familiarity with the medium.

f.  Writing may be educationally valuable but doing objective tests cannot be.

3.  Procedure for making objective tests.

a.  A team should be collected: subject experts and psychologists trained in testing techniques.

b.  Content of exam. should be mapped out and weighting decided.

c.  Preliminary pool of draft items for consideration > leads to item bank.

d.  Selection of 1.5 as many questions as required  for validation.

e.  Validation on 300-500 similar pupils to test discriminability, frequency of choice and length of paper.

f.  Elimination of unsatisfactory items and construction of final exam.

g.  Statistical assessment of each exam. and adjustments of item bank.

4.  Conclusions.

a.  Objective MCOQ tests not completely objective or reliable.

b.  But more objective and systematically prepared than conventional ones.

c.  Most natural tests should be applied. Facts better tested by objective tests than by essays.

d.  Objective tests most appropriate where large numbers (100+) are to be examined.

e.  Objectives tests useful where candidates are not fluent writers and where short items can be used.

f.  Useful for lower order strategies and higher order ones in science and technology.

g.  Essay form superior at advanced level where higher order strategies are to be tested, fluency in writing can be assumed, examiner ration is high, and students are unpractised at objective level.



15.  THE REQUIREMENTS OF TESTS

1.  Standardisation.

a.  The task - the problems, the instructions used and the time - should be the same for all candidates.

b. Test must be capable of numerical assessment, and the method of scoring must be the same for all candidates.

2.  Reliability.

a.  The test should measure accurately whatever it is measuring, and scores should not rely on chance.

b.  An estimate of reliability can be produced by:

1) repeating the exam.

2)  using parallel exams.

3)  comparing two halves of the same test.

c.  Tests can be made more reliable by:

1)  increasing length.

2)  designing them to produce a wider range of scores.

3)  several examiners marking same papers.

3.  Validity.

a.  The test should measure what it is supposed to be measuring.

b.  Validity must be assessed by comparing test with some external  measure, and that must depend on the purpose of the test. An attainment test can be compared with the results of another method. A predictive test must be compared with future results (Technical validity).

c.  The test must measure whether the candidate can carry out the activities which were the objectives of the course (Content validity).

d.  Estimates of validity can be assessed by:

1)  comparing results with those of another exam. of proven validity.

2)  comparing results with an exam. of another type.

3)  comparing results with own assessments of students' abilities.

e.  Exams. can be made more valid by:

1)  adequate identification of objectives to be assessed by exam.

2)  a sound selection of objectives to be assessed in particular exam.

3)  the selection of a suitable method of examining.

4)  clear relationship between course objectives and exam. items.

VALIDITY IS CRUCIAL. A TEST CAN BE RELIABLE AND NOT VALID. IF IT IS UNRELIABLE IT CANNOT BE VALID.



16.  SOURCES OF UNRELIABILITY IN TESTS OF CONVENTIONAL TYPE.

1.  Scorer unreliability:

a.  Different examiners have different standards.

b.  Different examiners look for different qualities.

c.  An examiner differs in mood, and accuracy of interpretation from time to time.

2.  Content unreliability (or invalidity):

a.  Poor sampling of content in conventional exam. leads to question spotting and a chance factor is involved. Large variation in papers results.

b.  Poor question format and ambiguous instructions lead to unreliability.

3.  Temporal unreliability:

a.  Sickness and fatigue affect results on different occasions.

b.  Degree of application varies.

c.  Recency of revision affects results.



17.  TEACHERS' ASSESSMENTS: PROS AND CONS

1.  Advantages:

a.  Based on pupils' work over a period of time, not on one day.

b.  Reflect normal work under everyday conditions.

c.  Teacher can teach what he considers appropriate without reference to mind of examiner.

d.  Can take into account student performance over a number of dimensions, including enthusiasm, creativity and team-work.

e.  Avoid the need for revision and for the overload of facts beyond what is required for understanding.

2.  Disadvantages:

a.  A teacher cannot set aside his own reactions to pupil, although these may be irrelevant.

b.  Assessments can be variable, particularly where they concern middle range pupils.

c.  Teachers rarely teach pupils over the whole range of a field of study at one time. In consequence memory has to be relied upon.

3.  Methods of overcoming defects:

a.  Required scholastic performance should be itemised, and assessments should be given for items independently.

b.  Assessments should be made by ranking in order of merit.

c.  Assessments should be made by more than one teacher and totalled.

d.  To avoid halo effect, assessments should be made on separate occasions and without reference to previous assessments.



18.  THE FUNCTIONS OF TESTS

1.  Criterion-based tests: certify whether or not a student has obtained knowledge, and skills required for a certain level of proficiency. (RAF trade tests are of this type.)

2.  Predictive tests:  assess capacity for a future job. Aptitude and intelligence tests measure capacity not attainment. (RAF recruitment tests are of this type.)

3.  Normative tests:  a device to grade students in an order of merit. Such tests will be more concerned to discriminate than to test. Useful for selection purposes.

4.  Diagnostic tests:  identify particular weaknesses of individual students at the beginning of a course. Progress tests at intermediate stages of courses can give feedback as to effectiveness of instruction as well as
on students' progress.

5.  Learning functions:  tests can assist in the learning function, not only by providing a spur to student, but also by providing a spur to student, but also by providing knowledge of results to assist student to see what he is supposed to be learning, and providing both him and instructor with a monitoring device.


                                                                                                                                                

"O" LEVEL ENGLISH LANGUAGE: PREPARATION OF STUDENTS

Introduction.

The following notes were provided by Flight Lieutenant A.W. Panton, M.A. Dip. Ed. to students of English at the Education Centre at RAF Lyneham, Chippenham, Wilts between 1971 and 1974. For the circumstances in which this instruction occurred, please see the introduction to the item on this blog entitled "Strategy for Writing "O" Level History Essays", dated 4th February 2013. During this three year period Flight Lieutenant Panton prepared large numbers of RAF personnel to take the "O" Level examination in English Language. The courses were organised on a six monthly basis, with the examinations occurring in January and June each year. Lessons lasting approx, 90 minutes were offered to students on a weekly basis, but each lesson was held twice each week (i.e. on one morning and one evening) to enable airmen on night shift or absent on flying duties to attend one or other of the lessons. Sometimes as many as 50 examination entries were made in each six month cycle. In addition to "O" Level, airmen were prepared to sit the RAF Education Test in order to qualify for promotion (RAFET I for promotion to corporal; RAFET II for promotion to sergeant). English was a central component of these tests at both levels. In all these courses there was a need to provide personnel with some understanding of the building blocks of writing English, i.e. grammar, punctuation, sentence and paragraph construction. Teaching such concepts as these is never straightforward. Teaching grammar within the context of a single language is a particularly difficult and unrewarding task. At school grammar has by tradition been most effectively taught within the context of multiple language acquisition, i.e. English, Latin/Greek and French/German, as comparisons which pupils can readily make between these different languages aid the development of grammatical understanding. In the circumstances of adult education this is unlikely to be possible. At the same time, it is difficult to encourage adult students to make the necessary mental effort to correct any occasional grammatical 'howlers' that they may make, because, when a student's writing is approx. 80-90% correct, the incentive to make the effort to develop the understanding of grammatical concepts, which alone will facilitate a higher level of correctness, is likely to be absent. Nevertheless, Flight Lieutenant Panton strove to assist his students, many of whom were keen and willing to improve, and the notes set out below were offered to them in this context. The challenge was to give sufficient information to allow a student to develop the necessary understanding, without confusing him/her by unnecessary elaboration.

Notes on the following topics are set out below:

Parts of Speech;

Sentence Construction;

Punctuation of Sentences;

Punctuation of Dialogue;

Use of Apostrophes;

Paragraphs; and

"O" Level English Language Comprehension Notes.


A.  PARTS OF SPEECH

1.  Nouns - words used to refer to somebody, something, somewhere. etc. Nouns can be classified as:

a.  Proper nouns (e.g. Jackson, Birmingham, Chelsea Football Club) refer to a particular person, place, thing. Proper nouns always begin with a capital letter.

b.  Common nouns (e.g. table, general, horse) refer to people and objects of which there are many.

c.  Abstract nouns (e.g. beauty, fear, extravagance) refer to things which have no physical being but are qualities which exist in men's minds.

d.  Collective nouns (e.g. committee, herd, squadron) refer to groups of people or things.

2.  Pronouns -  when the identity of a person or thing has been understood, it is oftern inconvenient to repeat the noun. A pronoun can then be used in place of a noun (e.g. I, you, he, she, it, one, we, they, me, him, her, us, them, this, that, and the possessive pronouns: my, your, his, hers, its, one's, our, their).

3.   Verbs - words, used to express 'doing', 'being', 'having'. Verbs have:

a.  Tense  Verbs can refer to past, present or future time. (A good test of whether a word is a verb is to see whether it can have tense forms.)

b.  Number  Does it have a singular or plural subject?

c.  Voice  Is the subject of the verb carrying out, or suffering, the action? If the former, it is in the active voice; if the latter, it is in the passive voice.

NB  (1)  A verb can be transitive or intransitive. If it can be followed by an object, it is transitive, e.g. the boy threw the ball. If it cannot take an object, it is intransitive, e.g. the boy shouted. Intransitive verbs (e.g. come, go) cannot have a passive voice.

(2)  Many verbs are compound e.g. am striking, will be going, will have been completed. Compound verbs are made up of more than one word, but grammatically they are a single unit. The additional words are known as verbal auxiliaries.

4.  Adjectives - words used to describe a noun or pronoun, e.g:

a. The man is big.

b.  The big man.

c.  He is big.

5.  Adverbs - words used not only to describe verbs but also adjectives and other adverbs, e.g:

a.  He ran quickly.

b.  He ran in a very relaxed style.

c.  He ran really quickly.

NB.  Most adverbs are formed by adding '-ly' to the end of an adjective.

6.  Conjunctions - words that join together words or clauses.

a.  The butcher, the baker and the candlestick maker.

b.  He ran up the hill, but then sat down.

c.  Because he was tired, he sat down.

d.  I shall go home when I feel tired.

NB  'And', 'but', 'or' and 'nor' are co-ordinating conjunctions that join together clauses into compound sentences (e.g. example b. above). Other conjunctions are subordinating conjunctions and introduce subordinate clauses within complex sentences (e.g. examples c. and d. above).

7.  Prepositions - words, usually short, which indicate the relationship of two things: e.g:

a.  The man was on the table.

b.  I have come from London.

NB  Prepositions often introduce short phrases: e.g. In the middle of the night.

8.  Interjections - exclamatory words, e.g. Oh!, Alas!, Hello!. They are always followed by an exclamation mark (!).

NOTE - It is not possible to include in the above categories (a) Verbal Adjectives; (b) Verbal Nouns; (c) Infinitives:

a.  Verbal Adjectives (or Participles) are formed from a verb, have the sense of action, etc, of a verb, but are grammatically adjectives. They are also often used to introduce phrases: e.g:

1.  Singing as he went, the ploughboy walked to market. ('Singing' is a present participle.)

2.  He died unlamented ('Unlamented' is a past participle.)

b.  Verbal Nouns (or Gerunds) are formed from a verb, have the sense of action, etc, of a verb, but are grammatically nouns, eg.

The girl's singing was beautiful.

c.  Infinitives are the root or basic form of a verb, and are another type of verbal noun, eg.

I prefer to walk.

                                                                                                                             

B.  SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION

1.  Definitions

a.  A sentence is a unit of words, containing at least one main clause. It is situated between two full-stops.

b.  A clause is a unit of words containing a finite verb.

(1)  A main clause contains the main verb and may be a sentence by itself. It must make sense as a separate unit of grammar (i.e. have a subject and predicate, or complete naming and telling parts).

(2)  A subordinate clause tells you more about something in the main clause. An adjectival (subordinate) clause tells you more about a noun or pronoun. An adverbial (subordinate) clause tells you about the main verb. A subordinate clause can never make grammatical sense by itself, and is always attached to a main clause.

c.  A phrase is a unit of words not containing a verb. It is usually introduced by either a preposition or a participle. Phrases can occur in either main or subordinate clauses, where they do the work of adjectives or adverbs. Like a subordinate clause, a phrase can never make sense on its own.

2.  Types of sentence

a.  Simple sentence - consisting of a main clause only, e.g. I ran down the road.

b.  Compound sentence - consisting of two or more main clauses, e.g. (1) I ran down the road, but then I collapsed. (2) I awoke, rushed out of the house, and then ran down the road.

c.  Complex sentence - consisting of a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses, e.g. When I awoke, I ran down the road, which was a mile long.

d.  Compound-complex sentence - consisting of more than one main clause plus any number of subordinate clauses, e.g. When I awoke, I ran down the road, which was a mile long, but then I collapsed because I had not had eaten breakfast.

NB. (1) One can always use short sentences to good effect, e.g. Then, I collapsed.

(2) Phrases can be inserted  in any of the above sentences, but without changing their type, e.g. a. Singing happily, I ran down the road. b. Without having had breakfast, I ran down the road.

3.  Summary

Sentence construction techniques provide the writer with the tools with which to join together his ideas. In an essay situation, the writer has the following options available within each sentence:

a.  Short sentences;

b.  Phrases introduced by prepositions or participles;

c.  Subordinate clauses introduced by subordinating conjunctions; and

d.  Co-ordinating conjunctions that join main clauses together in one sentence.


4.  Considerations of style         

An attractive style of writing would produce variety by including all of these methods of connecting ideas. However, there are particular reasons for using each of these structural tools. Short sentences are useful to heighten drama or for the purpose of emphasis. Phrases are preferable to subordinate clauses where the latter would sound clumsy due to their length, but a subordinate clause is a more powerful means of expression than a phrase. Co-ordinating conjunctions are appropriate to join things which are not specifically related to each other in any particular way, but, where such a relation is present (e.g. time, cause, result, purpose, condition, concession), it is preferable to employ a subordinate clause.               


                                                                                                                  


C.  PUNCTUATION OF SENTENCES

1.  Full-stops.

Full-stops are used to complete sentences, unless a question or exclamation mark is more appropriate.

2.  Commas.

The main purpose of commas is to analyse sentences into their component parts. The following observations are relevant in this context:

a.  It is not always necessary to insert commas for this purpose in the case of short sentences, e.g. I ran down the road and then stopped. However, commas should always be employed in long sentences, and/or where confusion might otherwise occur, e.g. Once midnight had struck, Sir Toby always maintained that he was up early, not late.

b.  It is usual to separate a main clause from a subordinate clause with a comma when the subordinate clause comes first, e.g. Because he needed the money, the man slipped the petty cash into his pocket, but it is not necessary to do so when the main clause comes first, e.g. The man slipped the money into his pocket because he needed the money. N.B. The former sentence emphasises the cause more than the latter.

c.  As commas create a slight pause in a sentence, they provide emphasis, eg. He reached the tape first but, because he was exhausted, he fainted immediately afterwards. N.B. If you have one comma with the 'because' clause, you must have another. The rule is either two commas or none. If the two commas had been omitted there would have been less emphasis on the cause of the fainting.

d.  In the case of adjectival clauses, commas are used when the clause adds information but is not necessary to distinguish the noun it describes, e.g. He ran down the road, which was a mile long. Where the adjectival clause is essential in distinguishing the noun it describes a comma should not be used, e.g. Of the two routes available to him, he ran down the one which was pointing towards Norwich. N.B. If any difficulty is experienced in determining whether the comma is needed or not, it is always possible to exchange the word 'that' for 'which' when the comma is not appropriate, but such an exchange is not possible when the information added by the adjectival clause is incidental and the comma is needed.

3.  Semi-colons.

It is possible to use semi-colons to separate parallel expressions that would normally be separated by commas with a co-ordinating conjunction, e.g. 'In the morning it was too cool for him to sit outside without his coat; in the afternoon it was too hot for him to be able to sit outside at all.' The semi-colon is also commonly used to divide items in a list introduced by a colon (see 4 below). In general, however, the use of semi-colons is an obsolete practice and it is preferable to avoid it.

4.  Colons.

The employment of the colon as a punctuation stop, so common in the King James' Bible, is now completely obsolete and it should not now be used in this way. Its incidence is now largely confined to its use at the beginning of a list of items, e.g. 'The headmaster decided that in future corporal punishment of pupils would be employed only in the following circumstances: insolence, including the use of foul language, directed towards members of staff; serious instances of bullying of other pupils; and bringing the school's name into disrepute by abusive behaviour towards members of the public on the way to and from school, or on school trips.' Notice the use of semi-colons to separate the items in the list of offences. 

5.  Question Marks.

It is important to remember to end a question with a question mark. A question mark is grammatically necessary even when the words used seem more like a request, e.g. 'Will you please stand back?' On the other hand a question mark must not be used when the question is in reported speech, e.g. 'Ask him who said that.'


                                                                                                                                 

D.  PUNCTUATION OF DIALOGUE

Dialogue can be punctuated in four ways:

Type A:  The boy said, "Cricket is my favourite sport".

Type B:  "Cricket is my favourite sport," said the boy.

Type C:  "Cricket is my favourite sport," said the boy, "because it requires so much thought as well as skill".

Type D:  "Cricket is my favourite sport," said the boy. "It is a pity that some people don't enjoy it."

NB.  The actual spoken words (quotation) are always in inverted commas. The rest of the sentence is called the explanation.

Notice the following points:

1.  There is always a comma between the explanation and the quotation, and the quotation, or both parts of the quotation, where the explanation is inserted between them, always begins with a capital letter.

2.  In Type D, two sentences are required because the actual spoke words would have been spoken in two sentences.

3.  The full-stop at the end of Types A and C falls after the inverted comma, because the sentence which it ends includes the explanation as well as the quotation. The full-stop at the the end of Type D falls before the inverted  comma, because the sentence which it ends is all within the quotation, i.e. the inverted commas.

Question and exclamation marks have the force of commas or full-stops - whichever is appropriate.

Examples:

a.  "I love cricket!" said the boy. (Comma)

b.  "Do you love cricket too?" asked the boy. (Comma)

c.  The boy said, "I love cricket!" (Full-stop)

d.  The boy asked, "Do you love cricket too?" (Full-stop)

If a new paragraph is begun in a piece of dialogue or direct speech, it is customary to renew the inverted commas at the beginning of the new paragraph. Whenever a new speaker speaks, there is always a new paragraph.



                                                                                                                        


E.  USE OF APOSTROPHES

1)  Apostrophes ( ' ) are used to show possession. To indicate possession the name of the possessor is followed by 'apostrophe s'. When the name of the person or thing that is in possession ends in an 's', the 's' after the apostrophe is left out if that word is plural and may be left out if it is singular.

Examples:

a.  The boy's room.  (The room of the boy.)

b.  The boys' room.  (The room of the boys.)

c.  The man's room.  (The room of the man.)

d.  The men's room.  (The room of the men.)

e.  James' room.  (The room of James.)
             or
f.  James's room.  (The room of James.)

NB.  The apostrophe is never used with the possessive pronouns 'his' or 'its', but is used with the impersonal 'one's'.

2)  Apostrophes are also used to indicate contraction (i.e. letters left out), usually in the punctuation of dialogue. The apostrophe is put in the place where a letter or letters have been omitted.

Examples:

I'll  (I shall not.)
You'll  (You will not.)
He'll  (He will not.)
She's  (She is.)
It's  (It is.)
Isn't.  (Is not.)
Don't.  (Do not.)
Can't.  (Cannot.)
Won't.  (Will not.)
Shouldn't  (Should not.)



                                                                                                                      


F.  PARAGRAPHS IN ESSAY WRITING.


1.  The paragraph is the unit of the essay.

a.  A paragraph consists of a number of sentences arranged in order to form one unit dealing with one topic.

b.  The main thought in a paragraph is expressed in the topic or key sentence. It should be easy to find the main thought in a well-written paragraph, and to express that thought in a title.

c.  The sentences in a paragraph should follow one another in logical order, and should vary in length and structure. The result will be an attractive style.

2.  Paragraphs develop the essay.

a.  When paragraphs are combined to form an essay, the clear, logical development from one paragraph to another is if great importance.

b.  In a narrative essay, the opening paragraph sparks off the action. In a descriptive essay, the opening paragraph draws the outline of the scene. In an explanatory essay, the opening paragraph sets out the first stage in the explanation. The paragraphs that follow must then continue the sequence, each serving as a link between the preceding paragraph and the subsequent one until the final paragraph is reached. The final paragraph brings the essay to a logical or definite conclusion.

c.  The first sentence in a paragraph should make clear to the reader the position of that paragraph in the sequence of the essay as a whole. This sentence will be the topic sentence and will act as a guide-post to the rest of the paragraph.



                                                                                                                           


G.  "O" LEVEL ENGLISH LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION NOTES

A.  Comprehension Technique.

1. Comprehension means understanding of the passage set. Your task is to demonstrate such an understanding, and you should not include anything else.

2.  You must be relevant. Make sure that you answer the question directly.

3.  Be straightforward and concise.

4.  Be grammatical. Write in sentences unless directed otherwise.

5.  Write answers in your own phraseology.

6.  If you quote a word or short phrase from the passage, use quotation marks.


B.  Summary (or Precis) Writing.

1.  Read through the part of the passage in question and jot down very briefly in rough the points relevant to the particular topic. Separate these points by dashes or hyphens.

2.  From your notes and as far as possible without looking at the original write a rough draft of the summary in your own words. This does not mean that you must avoid using words that you would naturally use just because they are in the original, but it does mean that you should not lift 'parrot-fashion' from the passage.

3.  Count the number of lines/ words.

4.  If you have used too many words you may be able to rephrase parts of your summary more economically; but do not try to make do with fewer words than you need to express yourself adequately, for it is much better to omit some less important idea than not to be clear. If you have words to spare, they might be used to link the ideas more clearly or to include some points previously omitted.

NB.

(1)  Direct speech should always be converted to reported speech.

(2)  Writing expressed in the first person should be recast in the third person.

(3)  Decide on a title and then place it at the top.




                                                                                                                                     
                       

"O" LEVEL GENERAL PAPER : A SELF-STUDY COURSE

Preface.

The following piece of guidance was written by Flight Lieutenant A.W. Panton, M.A., Dip. Ed. in 1973 when he was a station education officer at RAF Lyneham, Chippenham, Wilts. For more information about the circumstances in which such guidance was produced, please look at the introduction to the item on this blog entitled "Strategy for Writing "O" Level History Essays, dated 4th February 2013. For RAF personnel wishing to achieve the 5 "O" Levels minimum qualification for commissioning, the General Paper was a relatively straightforward subject to attempt.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
The Examination
Why do a self-study course?
The objectives of this course
Schedule of work

STRATEGY FOR WRITING GENERAL PAPER ESSAYS
The need for planning your essays
The structure of an essay
The choice of essays
The types of question
Planning the essay
Writing the essay

ANNEXES
A.  Specimen examination paper
B.  Example of a General Paper essay

INTRODUCTION

1.  As its name implies, the General Paper is not an examination of any specified syllabus. Its intention is to test candidates' maturity of thought and expression in answering questions of contemporary interest. In discussing these problems you are not required to reel off facts and figures in great quantities, but you are expected to be able to demonstrate a general awareness of some of the problems or issues which face modern society.

2.  The Examination.  The General Paper examination, which is 2 hrs. 30 mins. in length, is divided into THREE sections, each consisting of six essay questions. You have to answer ONE question from EACH section. The subjects of each section are as follows:

A.  Political/ social/ economic

B.  Scientific/ environmental

C.  Cultural.

You have 50 minutes in which to answer each question. A specimen of an examination paper is at Annex A to the course notes.

3.  Why do a self-study course?  Although a regular class, which students could attend regularly, would be preferable educationally, a self-study course is well suited to the General Paper as no particular course of study is to be tested. Even in a regular class, it would be pointless for a lecturer to provide you with information on particular subjects; we must assume as a pre-requisite of this course that you are reasonably well informed about matters of topical interest. A self-study course is therefore both an appropriate and convenient means of preparation for this examination.

4.  The objectives of this course.  As you have previously passed "O" Level English Language, you have indicated that your English grammar is at least adequate for this examination, and there is no specific content for you to learn or master. What remains is essay-writing technique. You will already have written essays for "O" Level English Language, and will therefore have some experience of what such answers require. However, the General Paper requires a rather more refined essay technique: you will need  to analyse the different requirements of different types of question, to plan your answers in such a way that that provide appropriate answers to particular questions, and to express  your ideas so as to bring out clearly the points you make. Finally, it is to be hoped that in doing these things you will acquire a deeper insight into some of the problems or issues of our age, and hence improve the quality of your thought. The objectives of the course are summarised as follows;

a.  to enable you to analyse the different requirements of different types of essay question;

b.  to enable you to plan your essay answers in such a way that they provide appropriate answers to particular questions;

c.  to enable you to express your ideas so as to bring out clearly the points you make; and

d.  to enable you to acquire a deeper insight into some of the problems or issues of our age.

5.  Schedule of work.  This self-study course contains notes on the 'strategy for writing General Paper essays', a specimen examination paper, and an example of a General Paper essay. Your first task is to read the notes very carefully and thoroughly. When you have done this, you will be required to answer at least TWO of the essay questions from EACH section. A reasonable essay would amount to two and a half to three pages of the exercise book provided with the course. You will be expected to complete those SIX questions - you may do more if you wish - a week before the mock examination that will be set to test your readiness to sit the paper. The week after the mock examination there will be debriefing and revision class, and the examination proper will follow a week after that. Dates and other relevant details are attached in the covering letter that comes with this course.

NOTE:  Although this is a self-study course, you are welcome, in the case of difficulty, to seek advice or assistance from the education officer in charge of the course.

STRATEGY FOR WRITING GENERAL PAPER ESSAYS

6.  A specimen of a General Paper examination paper is attached at Annex A to these notes. As you will see, these essays require you to present a case or argument in written form. This argument has to be both well thought out and well expressed. In addition, it should not be one-sided, as politicians' arguments so often are, but show both sides of a question. However strongly you may feel concerning a subject about which you are writing, it is advisable to express your self with moderation, and not to over-simplify matters or descend to abuse.

7.  The need for planning your essays.  The writing of an essay involves three distinct processes. These are as follows:

a.  Planning the essay;

b.  Thinking about how to express your ideas; and

c.  The physical act of writing.

Many people try to do all three processes simultaneously; the result is usually a poor piece of writing. The reason for this is simple: if you try to do all three processes at the same time, the quality of each will suffer. Although it is reasonable to do processes b. and c. together, it is essential to separate the planning stage. Indeed, the key to the writing of a competent essay lies in the planning of it.

8.  The structure of an essay.  An argumentative essay contains the following components: an introduction; the mainstream or central paragraphs, and the conclusion. The characteristics of each component are shown below:

a.  Introduction

(1)  Should EITHER answer the question clearly and then indicate how the answer will be substantiated OR outline how the answer is to be reached. (Which method you adopt will depend on the type of question you are answering. For 'The types of question', see para. 10.)

(2)  Should cover any important preliminary points which cannot be conveniently fitted in elsewhere. (For instance the meaning of a word in the question might need to be clarified.)

(3)  Should be brief and should not include details.

(4)  Should be stimulating.

b.  Mainstream (or central) paragraphs

(1)  Should contain the central points or factors of the argument.

(2)  Each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence, which both makes the point of the paragraph and shows the relevance of it, and of the details which follow, to the question.

(3)  The details within each paragraph substantiate or illustrate the points made in the topic sentence.

(4)  Paragraphs should be linked if possible, and should follow one another in the most effective order.

c.  Conclusion

(1)  Should EITHER reinforce the answer given in the introduction by summarising the argument presented in the essay, OR tie together the threads of the essay in such a way as to produce an answer to the question. (Which method you adopt will depend on the type of question you are answering. For 'The types of question', see para. 10.)

(2)  Could contain a final clinching point in support of your argument.

(3)  Should be clearly and concisely written, and should be stimulating.

9.  The choice of essays.  The choice of which essays from each section you should answer is obviously largely up to you, but as a general guideline it is wise to choose those that afford you the best opportunity to write from personal interest, experience, knowledge or involvement. However, the type of question is also an important factor to consider. These types we shall now examine.

10.  The types of question.  In the General Paper, questions are EITHER controversial (i.e. they require you to present both sides of a prominent question concerning which people disagree) OR they demand an explanatory answer. If the question is controversial, it can require EITHER a delayed or an immediate verdict. Examples of these THREE types of question can be found in your specimen examination paper in Annex A at the end of these notes:

a.  Controversial: delayed verdict:

Sect. A: 2,3,4; Sect. B: 7; Sect. C: 14,16,18.

b.  Controversial: immediate verdict:

Sect. A: 1,5; Sect. B: 8; Sect. C: 15.

c.  Explanatory:

Sect. A: 6: Sect. B: 9-12; Sect. C: 13,17.

NOTE:  Although you may think that questions A: 2 and 3, and B: 7 do not require any verdict, it is nevertheless desirable to attempt one at the end of the essay. You will notice that the spread of questions is not even. Controversial questions are frequent in sections A and C; those requiring explanatory answers predominate in Section B.

11.  Planning the essay.  It is particularly important in the General Paper to plan your essays with care. In "O" Level History and Geography your essay answers will largely have been pre-packaged in your minds beforehand, but, as you cannot anticipate any of the questions in the General Paper you must therfore prepare your answers in the examination room. Because of this, you are given a generous allocation of 50 minutes to each question; of this you spend at least 15 minutes planning your answer. How you plan an essay is a personal matter, but you will have gathered already that different types of question demand different types of answer. Your planning will obviously reflect these differences. Laid out below is a suggested procedure for you to follow when planning your essays. You should remember that paragraphs are the structural units of your essay; each mainstream paragraph should contain one major topic contributing to your answer.

PROCEDURE FOR ESSAY PLANNING

1.  Decide which type of question you are answering, and bear in mind the exact wording of the question.

2.  Jot down on rough paper all your thoughts on the subject under discussion. For a controversial answer these thoughts will consist of points both FOR and AGAINST the statement at issue; for an explanatory question they will be the points or factors that your answer will contain. (NOTE: you must expect these thoughts to occur to you in a random rather than a logical order.)

3.  Form the topics or themes of your paragraphs from the points you have jotted down. A number of points will probably have something in common, which is of importance to the answer. That common factor will be the topic of a paragraph. Groups the points together under this topic, which will become a paragraph heading; the points will become the details contained in that paragraph. (The paragraph heading will be translated into a topic sentence, when the essay is written.)

4.  Add any further details that may occur to you while you are forming your paragraphs.

5.  Decide on the most suitable order for your paragraphs, and list the headings accordingly.

6.  Decide the contents of your introduction and conclusion in the light of the type of essay you are planning. Note that you must plan the introduction as well as the conclusion AFTER the mainstream paragraphs have been planned, for you obviously cannot plan an introduction to something which you have not yet thought out.

When completed, your rough plan should resemble the formats laid out below. These formats include the number of paragraphs, the paragraph headings, and the details of the paragraphs. A typical General Paper essay might have 4-6 paragraphs: 1 for the introduction; 2-4 for the mainstream; and 1 for the conclusion. A format is shown below for each of the THREE types of essay answer:

ESSAY PLAN FORMATS

1.  Controversial: delayed verdict:

Introduction ...... (Show how answer will be reached)

(Points 'for')

1............... (Paragraph heading: details) ..................

2................(Paragraph heading: details)...................

(Points 'against')

3................(Paragraph heading: details)....................

4................(Paragraph heading: details)....................

Conclusion .........(A statement of reasoned answer + ? clinching point.)

2.  Controversial: immediate verdict:

Introduction..........(Provide answer by a clear statement, and then show how it will be substantiated.)

(Points 'for')

1................(Paragraph heading: details)....................

2................(Paragraph heading: details)....................

(Points 'against' - See note below)

3................(Paragraph heading: details)....................

4................(Paragraph heading: details)....................

Conclusion.............(Summary of argument + ? clinching point)

NOTE:  Although you have stated your view in then opening paragraph, the rules of debate require you to cover the points that might be raised in opposition to your case. By mentioning them you will demonstrate that you are aware that they do present difficulties. However, in this type of essay you are advised to try to make light of the points 'against', or at least to show that in comparison with the points 'for' your case, they are insignificant.

3.  Explanatory:

Introduction.............(General coverage of answer)

(List of the factors presented in explanation)

1................(Paragraph heading: details)....................

2................(Paragraph heading: details)....................

3................(Paragraph heading: details)....................

4................(Paragraph heading: details)....................

Conclusion...............(Summarise answer in the light of above analysis)

Before you commence the writing of any General Paper essay you should have before you a plan closely resembling the above formats. The existence of a plan will not enable you to concentrate fully on the writing and expression of your ideas , but will also give you the confidence that comes from knowing exactly where you are going and what you are going to say. A coherent plan will also help you to avoid repetition of points, or the need to add something in at the last moment when it should have been included at an earlier point in the essay. Such flaws are almost unavoidable in the absence of a plan. In order to practise the planning of essays, you are asked to include a rough plan at the head of each practice essay in your exercise book. An example of a rough plan can be seen at Annex B to these notes.

12.  Writing the essay.  You should write the essay following your plan exactly; the time for thinking about content had now passed, and at this point you should concentrate exclusively on how best to express the ideas you have before you. Express yourself precisely and with vigour. The more carefully you think out your ideas, the more likely you are to choose the right words to express them. Clear thought and clear language go together. Do not put your point of view too strongly, for if your argument is a sound one, powerful language will be unnecessary. The requirements of formal writing apply; as your ability to express yourself is one of the factors to be tested in the examination, you must expect to be penalised for errors of grammar, punctuation and spelling. By thinking out the structure and content of a sentence before you begin to write it, you can avoid mistakes in sentence construction. Such dangers also arise from sentences of excessive length. Variations in the length and structure of your sentences can contribute towards an attractive writing style. It is also preferable that you express your views impersonally (e.g. 'It is felt by many that ... '), rather than in the first person (e.g. 'I think that ... '). To illustrate these many points an example of a General Paper essay is included at Annex B to these notes.

Annexes to notes on 'Strategy for writing General Paper essays:

A.  Specimen of a General Paper examination.

B.  Example of a General Paper essay.


ANNEX  A.  GENERAL PAPER SPECIMEN EXAMINATION.

Time allowed: Two and a half hours.

You MUST answer ONE question from EACH of the following THREE sections.

SECTION A.

1.  Do you agree that, as far as Great Britain is concerned, the days of the railway are numbered?

2.  What are the arguments for and against equal pay for women?

3.  'Education should be removed entirely from the realm of politics.' Argue the case for and against this statement.

4.  Do you think that Britain still has a role to play East of Suez?

5.  Is there a case for the abolition of Opinion Polls?

6.  What do you think should be done to stop football hooliganism?

SECTION B.

7.  Exploration below the sea may well bring richer rewards than exploration on land. Discuss this statement.

8.  Electronic computers are sometimes referred to as electronic brains.

9.  Scientists are working to improve human fertility, yet all nations recognise the need to control world population. How do you reconcile these two facts?

10.  What solutions would you suggest to combat Britain's every increasing water shortage?

11.  How would you attempt to attract more boys and girls to careers in science?

12.  What success has attended recent efforts to cut down the pollution of the atmosphere?

SECTION C.

13.  Why do you think the 'Western' is still the most popular type of film?

14.  Can we afford not to have censorship of drama and literature?

15.  Do you agree that television is destroying reading as a pastime?

16.  Should minority languages be preserved? State the case for and against.

17.  In recent years, several national newspapers have disappeared. Suggest reasons for this.

18.  Is any music worthy of the name being produced today? Illustrate your answer with suitable examples.

ANNEX B.  EXAMPLE OF A GENERAL PAPER ESSAY.

'Discuss the case for introducing the referendum into our political system.'

1.  PLAN

Introduction:  Confusion with Common Market issue; state intention to consider cases 'for' and 'against'; issue is referenda v. general elections.

Mainstream:

(1)  Political dangers of referenda:  Instability; anarchy; lack of respect for govt. abroad; general elections provide stability and democracy; blackmail in France; lack of confidence in MPs; electorate too ignorant.

(2)  Operational difficulties of referenda: Public have no alternatives; over-simplification of issues; the actual wording; distortion in Norway; general elections lead to reasonable atmosphere; high cost.

(3)  Arguments in favour of referenda:  More democratic; useful where part system fails to reflect public opinion; for issues of great importance; high polls; education and media.

Conclusion: Final judgement difficult; tradition important; potential dangers can be overcome; referenda might be desirable in some circumstances; Govt. and border poll.

NOTE:  For the sake of clarity this plan is very elaborate. In your plans, which are of course written in rough, you will no doubt employ your own shorthand and abbreviations.

ESSAY (NOTE: Topic sentences are shown in italic script; links to the previous paragraph or paragraphs are underlined.)

One of the more interesting of recent political controversies has been the question of whether referenda should ever be used to decide issues of vital national importance. This question became for a time inextricably bound up with the argument concerning British entry to the Common Market, but it is a political issue in its own right. As in most political controversies, a balance sheet of advantages and disadvantages must be drawn up and considered before a rational judgement can be made. In Britain the argument centres around the comparison of referenda and general elections as instruments of political consultation between government and people.

The opponents of referenda cite a host of dangers and abuses that their introduction might bring to our political scene. Regular employment of the referendum to determine public approval of government policy might lead to a succession of short-lived governments. The consequent state of instability might deteriorate into anarchy and cause a lack of respect for out government overseas. In contrast, the traditional system of a general election every five years ensures conditions for stable government, while leaving the people ultimately in control of their own destiny. The referendum might become a means by which a government could bulldoze through controversial legislation by blackmailing the electorate with the threat of resignation in the event of a negative outcome. The late General de Gaulle was criticised for using referenda this way in France. Referenda also imply a lack of respect for our elected representatives in Parliament, who are, it is maintained, better informed than the ordinary citizen and the more able therefore to take important decisions on our behalf.

Apart from the dangerous consequences, which it is alleged referenda might bring, there are also various operational difficulties that militate against their introduction. Because a referendum usually demands a 'YES/NO' answer, it gives the people no opportunity to state alternatives to the policy on which it is voting. The result tends to be an over-simplification of complex issues. Furthermore, the matter of the wording to be referred becomes a matter of critical importance. By concentrating on one question, a referendum may encourage demagoguery, and the distortion that comes from over-emotionalising a political issue. This was demonstrated in last year's referendum in Norway on the Common Market issue, where the xenophobic tendencies inherent in most people were fully exploited by opponents to Market entry. Finally, the high cost and inconvenience of regular referenda are further arguments against their use.

In spite, however, of the reasons that can be brought against the use of the referendum, there are positive factors in its favour that must be considered too. The referendum is certainly a more democratic instrument than a general election, and can show, as a general election can never do, just what the wish of the electorate is on a clear-cut issue. This could be particularly valuable in a situation where an important political controversy is not adequately reflected in the party political system. The Common Market issue in Britain succeeded in cutting across party lines. In situations like that, particularly where a matter of overriding national importance is involved, a strong case can be made out for testing public opinion through a referendum. Referenda also seem to produce higher polls than general elections do, something which increases their democratic value. In addition, the increasing availability of public education and the news media suggest that as time goes on the ordinary citizen will become more able to decide important issues for himself.

A final judgement on this question is difficult; strong arguments can be produced both for and against the use of referenda. Opponents are right to stress the importance of traditions which have served us well in the past.  Unless circumstances require it, we should be wary of change. However, the need to be cautious with regard to political innovation should not lead to a refusal to innovate.The political dangers of referenda can easily be exaggerated, but, if care is taken, these can be avoided. In certain circumstances, where an issue vital to our nation's future is at stake, a referendum could be desirable. Has not our present government admitted as much, by holding recently, in conditions of particular difficulty, a referendum on the border issue in Northern Ireland?

POINTS TO NOTE:

1.  Note that the introduction makes clear that both sides of the argument will be considered before a conclusion is reached. The reference to the Common Market issue is an attempt to introduce a topic of current interest, and the statement concerning general elections covers an important preliminary point that might have caused confusion elsewhere.

2.  In the three mainstream paragraphs, you will see that the paragraph headings of the plan have been translated into topic sentences at the start of the paragraphs. These sentences show the position of the paragraph in the essay as a whole and relate the details that follow them to the question. Also, by alluding in some fashion to the content of the previous paragraphs the topic sentences provide a link between the paragraphs.

3.  In the conclusion a brief summary of the main points is attempted, a qualified verdict is suggested, and a final clinching point - the N. Irish border poll - is included both to emphasise the conclusion, and, by bringing us back to the very recent past, to make a final impression on the reader.


                                                                                                                               

STRATEGY FOR WRITING "O" LEVEL HISTORY ESSAYS, FOLLOWED BY HISTORY ESSAY EXAMPLE

Introduction.

This advice to students preparing for an "O" Level History examination was produced by Flight Lieutenant A.W.Panton, M.A. Dip. Ed. in 1973 while he was a station education officer at RAF Lyneham, Chippenham, Wilts. Under the Further Education and Continuation Training Scheme (FECTS), an "O" Level History course was offered to adult students at the Station's Education Centre. Students who attended this and other "O" Level courses included the following three main categories: (a) airmen wishing to qualify for officer commissioning (5 "O" Levels, including English Language and Elementary Mathematics, was the basic educational qualification required for this); (b) airmen preparing for resettlement into civilian life; and (c) the wives and children of RAF personnel. Because a number of these students might be required to work on night shifts or were aircrew subject to significant absences 'on route', they could not always attend the weekly ninety minute lessons around which such courses were based. Flight Lieutenant Panton, therefore, tended to circulate guidance sheets such as the one below to help students to study in their own time or to catch up on work missed. In the RAF Education Branch such assistance was described as 'Pre-structured Instruction'. 

It should be emphasised here, that model essays such as the one included at the end of this guidance, were not provided as a means of 'cramming' students, but solely in order to give a concrete example as to how to plan and write an "O" Level History essay.  

STRATEGY FOR WRITING "O" LEVEL HISTORY ESSAYS

1.  Look at the question very carefully: What type of answer does it require? What topics from notes need to be included in the answer?

2.  Plan structure of the essay in the following sequence:

a.  Mainstream of the Essay (2-6 paragraphs)

(1)  Contains main factual content of the essay.

(2)  The facts back up the central theme of the essay.

(3)  Each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence which introduces the facts and relates them directly to the question.

(4)  Paragraphs should be linked, if possible, and should follow one another naturally, i.e. in the most natural order.

b.  Introduction.

(1)  Should not answer the question but outline in general terms the scope or direction of the answer.

(2)  Should cover any important preliminary details, which cannot be conveniently fitted in elsewhere.

(3)  Should be brief, and should not include many facts.

(4)  Should be stimulating.

c.  Conclusion.

(1)  Should tie the threads  of the essay together, either by summarising the topics discussed earlier and/or by a general statement.

(2)  Should cover any important concluding details, which cannot be conveniently fitted in elsewhere.

(3)  Should be clear, concise and stimulating.

The minimum details that a plan should include are the paragraph numbers and their topic headings. The general statements and other details required for the introduction and conclusion should also be noted, but only after the content of the mainstream paragraphs has been determined.

Introduction ...........(General scope etc) .................

1 ........................... (Topic heading) ......................

2 ............................(Topic heading) ......................

3 ............................(Topic heading) ......................

4 ............................(Topic heading) ......................

Conclusion .............(Final statement etc) ................

If notes have been thoroughly learned, most of the detailed information will be triggered by the topic heading.

3.  Write the essay, following the plan.

NB:  If this strategy is followed, every word in the essay should be relevant, i.e. RELATED TO THE QUESTION.

HISTORY ESSAY EXAMPLE

"What domestic reforms were carried out by Disraeli during the Conservative governments of 1866-8 and 1874-80?"

PLAN - by paragraph heading.

1.  Mainstream  (NB:  Paragraph headings should be the similar to those in notebook.)

Para. 1.  Second Reform Bill

a.  Details.

b.  Results.

Para. 2.  Social Reforms

a.  Artisans' Dwelling Act 1875.

b.  Public Health Act 1875.

c.  Factory Act 1874.

Para. 3.  Industrial Labour Reforms

a.  Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875.

b.  Employers and Workmen Act 1875.

c.  Trade Union Amendment Act 1876.

Para. 4.  Other Reforms

a.  Merchant Shipping Act 1876.

b.  Enclosure of Commons Act 1876.

c.  Education Act 1876.

2.  Introduction

a.  Physical well-being of lower classes (scope of reforms)

b.  Details of ministries (preliminary information)

3.  Conclusion

a.  Agricultural depression and Disraeli's fall.

b.  Summarise reforms showing sensitivity to needs of lower classes.

NB:  In the essay the paragraph headings of the mainstream paragraphs will become topic sentences.

ESSAY - following plan. (NB: topic sentences are shown in italics. Links to the previous paragraph or paragraphs are underlined.)

Benjamin Disraeli was remarkable as a Conservative Prime Minister for the amount of domestic reforms that he introduced. These reforms indicated his real concern for the physical well-being of the lower classes. Chancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Derby in 1866-8, he became Prime Minister for a short time in 1868. It was, however, in his famous second ministry of 1874-80 that most of his reforms were carried through.

In general, Disraeli showed little enthusiasm for political reforms, but in 1867 he piloted the Second Reform Act through the Commons in an attempt to outdo the Whigs. The Act extended the franchise to all rate-paying householders and £10 lodgers in the boroughs and to £12 leaseholders in the counties, and also carried out a redistribution of parliamentary seats that recognised changing population patterns. The Act doubled the electorate, adding a million voters to the rolls; for the first time, members of the working classes received the vote.

Having given political power to some of the working classes, Disraeli set about wooing them in his ministry of 1874-80 with a programme of social legislation aimed at improving the living and working conditions of the urban poor. His Home Secretary, Richard Cross, carried through the Artisans' Dwelling Act of 1875, which empowered local authorities to pull down insanitary dwellings and build others, and in the same year a Public Health Act was passed. This act compelled local authorities to appoint Medical Officers of Health and Health Inspectors, and to implement new regulations concerning drainage, sewage-disposal, refuse collection, water supply and infectious diseases. The Factory Act of 1874 at last succeeded in limiting the working day to ten hours, while the Factory and Workshops Act of 1878 brought workshops of less than fifty workers under Government inspection.

Parallel to their social legislation, Disraeli and Cross carried through a number of laws that reformed and regularised industrial labour relations. The Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act made an action of a group of workmen legal if it were legal for one man; this act therefore legalised striking. The Employers' and Workmen's Act of 1875 ended the disparity by which employees who broke their contracts were liable to criminal penalties, whereas employers were only liable to civil penalties for doing so. The Trade Union Amendment Act in the following year assisted the legal position of trade unions by defining them clearly.

Other reforms, also testifying to Disraeli's concern for the interests of the poorer classes, were passed during his second ministry. The Merchant Shipping Act of 1876 reduced the risk to seamen by securing the compulsory acceptance of loadlines for ships - the 'Plimsoll Line', named after Samuel Plimsoll, the MP who led the campaign for it. The Enclosure of Commons Act of 1876 prohibited the enclosure of common land, unless it were shown to be in the public interest; this act saved Epping Forest as a recreation area for the people of London. The Education Act of 1876 took a step towards compulsory elementary education by making parents who kept their children away from school liable to fines; consequently school attendances rose.

By the time he fell from power in 1880, an occurrence closely connected with the severe agricultural depression of the late eighteen-seventies, Disraeli had carried out an extensive programme of social and industrial reforms that indicated his sensitivity to the needs of the poor and his belief in the duties of the governing classes.